
Class 

Book 



©QEBRIGHT DEPOSm 



HANDBOOK 

FOR 

RANGERS & WOODSMEN 



BY 

JAY L. B. TAYLOR 

FOREST RANGER 
UNITED STATES FOIiEST SERVICE 



FIRST EDITION 
FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
1917 






Copyright, 1 91 6, by 
JAY L. B. TAYLOR 




DEC 28 1916 



©CI.A453319 

PUBLISHERS PRINTING COMPANY, NEW YORK 



PREFACE 

(1) Object. — The object of this volume is to serve as a guide 
for inexperienced men in woods work. While in its preparation, 
the author had primarily in mind the problems which confront 
a forest ranger, in Government, State, or private employ, and 
especially rangers on National Forests, yet the suggestions of- 
fered may be of use to others whose work or recreation takes 
them into rough and unsettled regions. The book is not in- 
tended and should not be considered in any way as an official 
or even a semi-official pubHcation the use of which is obHga- 
tory upon National Forest Rangers. It has been prepared, 
however, by permission of the Secretary of Agriculture, whose 
criticisms have been carefully considered and at whose request 
certain revisions have been made, and is strictly in the nature of 
a private pubHcation prepared after eight years of experience in 
field work of the United States Forest Service. 

It is not placed before the pubHc with any intention or desire 
on the part of the author to insist that opinions of inexperi- 
enced persons must coincide with the ones expressed here before 
satisfactory results may be obtained. On the contrary, the 
absolute necessity for exercising ingenuity and originahty of 
thought, in so far as this is practicable, is thoroughly appreciated 
and is suggested as the most effective means of extrication from 
all difficulties encountered, especially those the solution of which 
cannot be touched upon here. 

(2) Brevity. — Recognition of the fact that volume after vol- 
ume might stiU fail to cover in detail any one of the subjects 
discussed here makes it at once apparent that only the most 
essential points can be covered in a book of this size. Conse- 
quently only such problems as have been found to be especially 
difficult for the inexperienced woodsman are considered. 

(3) Technical Terms. — These have been avoided so far as 
such a course seemed practical, and aU unusual trade or pro- 
fessional terms with which the beginner can not be expected 
to be famihar have been defined in the Glossary. 

(4) Cost Data. — It is assumed as general knowledge that 
costs increase as western sections are reached and that tabu- 



iv PREFACE 

lated lists of costs covering each article and applicable to each 
section would require work and research of a nature not justi- 
fied by or compatible with the nature of this book. Therefore 
the costs given range from the minimum for the cheaper grades 
to the maximum for "the better grades of articles mentioned. 

Finally, it is sincerely hoped that beginners will not be con- 
tent to accept the following suggestions as the only possible or 
the most effective solutions of the problems involved, but that 
they will be continually on the alert to discover other and more 
effective solutions which they may transmit to their successors. 

Sincerest thanks ara extended to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
Chief Forester Graves, District Forester Ringland, and Forest 
Supervisors Kiefer and Hinderer for assistance rendered; to 
Forest Ranger Russell, who spent some fourteen years as a sol- 
dier and Forest Officer in the Philippine Islands and who con- 
tributed the article on " Field Work in the Philippine Islands "; 
to Forest Ranger Perry, Special Detail on Telephone Construc- 
tion, Carson National Forest, for valuable suggestions offered 
on the subject of " Telephone Construction " ; to Assistant Forest 
Ranger Warner, Prescott National Forest, for the timely sug- 
gestions he has offered on the subject of " Identification of 
Livestock": to ex-Forest Guard HighfiU, Arkansas National 
Forest, for practical assistance extended in compiling the article 
on " Care of Horses "; toR. C. Bryant, Professor of Lumbering, 
and S. J. Record, both of the Yale Forest Schpol, for their 
continued assistance and interest in this work; to the Moline 
Plow Company for illustrations and assistance furnished on the 
subject of " Wagons "; to the Lufkin Rule Company for illus- 
trations and for the Doyle log rule and the table showing com- 
parisons of various log rules; to the Pratt Food Company for 
advice concerning "Diseases of Live Stock"; to the Western 
Electric Company for their assistance and continued interest 
in the subject of " Telephone Construction "; to the Du Pont 
Powder Company for illustrations and data on "Blasting"; 
to the Simmons Hardware Company for illustrations and infor- 
mation supplied; to the International Harvester Company for 
information contributed; to Swift & Company and Armour & 
Company for courtesies extended; to the late N. H. C. Taylor, 
formerly of the Signal Corps, United States Army, for data 
supphed; to O. St. John, M. D., for assistance rendered in the 
compilation of the subject " Ailments "; to H. T. Southworth,' 



PREFACE V 

M. D., City Health Officer of Prescott, Arizona, for valuable 
suggestions concerning the subject of "Poisoning"; to the 
Southwestern Portland Cement Company for advice on the 
subject of " Concrete Work "; to C. C. Queen, practical black- 
smith and shoer, for assistance rendered in the compilation of 
the subject relating to horseshoeing; to E. G. Bosserman, 
practical painter and paper-hanger for advice on the subject 
of '' Painting "; to J. A. Richards, sawmill operator, for advice 
on the subject of "Woods Work"; to N. H. Getchell, mine 
operator, for suggestions concerning "Blasting"; to J. E. 
Bacon, packer, for assistance in the work of compiUng the 
article on "Packing"; and to Chas. B. Weil, whose practical 
suggestions, offered from the view-point of an experienced camper, 
have proven of inestimable value in the work of assembHng and 
preparing the subjects covered here. 

J. L. B. T. 
Groom Creek, Arijsona, 
December 1, 1916. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface iii 

Equipment 1 

Personal 1 

Riding 10 

Packing 20 

Animal 24 

Cooking 28 

Provisions 30 

Construction Work 31 

Telephone Lines 31 

Telephones 49 

Telephone Troubles 51 

Trails . . .' 52 

RockDriUing 72 

Blasting 74 

Buildings 85 

Concrete Work 99 

Painting 105 

Fences 107 

Carpenter's Kit 119 

Carpenter's Square 127 

Shears 137 

General Field Work 139 

Riding 139 

Packing 147 

Wagons 153 

Driving 167 

Woods Work 170 

Estimating Timber 180 

FeUing Timber 183 

Bucking Logs 186 

Log Scaling . , 188 

Land Surveys 192 

vii 



VIU CONTENTS 

General Field Work {Continued) page 

Surveying Crews and Their Work 198 

Standard Forest Service Compass 200 

Variation . . . . , 203 

Traverse Tables 204 

Fire Fighting . . .205 

Field Cooking . . . . .210 

Care of Field Cooking Utensils 224 

Butchering . 225 

Live Stock . . ' . . . . 227 

Care of Horses 227 

Shoeing 231 

Hobbling 238 

Diseases of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Hogs . . . 240 

Administering Medicines 266 

Subjugating Horses 267 

Purchasing a Saddle Horse 272 

Identification of Stock 279 

Brands 280 

Ear-Marks 291 

Ear Buttons 294 

Ear Loops 294 

Ear Tags 294 

Dewlaps 294 

Ages of Cattle . 295 

Miscellaneous 296 

Ailments and Injuries 296 

Treatments 296 

Poisons 310 

Reptiles 315 

Location of Camp Sites . . . 319 

Confusion of Directions 322 

Fastenings 325 

Field Work in the PhiHppine Islands 338 

Appendix 341 

Administrative Districts 341 

Forest Supervisors' Headquarters ■ , 341 

Lands Acquired Under the Weeks Law 346 

Weights 346 



CONTENTS ix 

Appendix {Continued) page 

Measures 347 

Weights and Measurements of Hay, Grain, Seed, and 

Vegetables 349 

Per Cent. Measurement of Grades 351 

Miscellaneous Weights 352 

Relation of Degrees and Per Cent 354 

To Ascertain Grades without a Gradometer . . , 354 

Sag Tables 355 

To Ascertain Distant Elevations 356 

Traverse Table 357 

Preservative Treatment of Telephone Poles .... 358 

Size and Number of Nails per Pound 359 

Materials Required in Concrete 362 

Blasting Charges 369 

Government Formula for Whitewash . . . . . 369 

Log Rules 369 

Comparison of Log Rules 377 

Glossary 379 

Index , 407 



Handbook for Rangers 
and Woodsmen 

EQUIPMENT 

PERSONAL 

CLOTHING 

Altitude, latitude, and -season must of course be carefully 
considered before field clothing is purchased, and if personal 
experience has taught the purchaser that garments of different 
weight or texture than those hereafter described will prove 
more comfortable in his individual case he should by all means 
secure them. In case of doubt he will find the following sug- 
gestions of more or less assistance until such time as actual 
field experience will have shown him just what articles are best 
suited to his personal tastes. 

Official efforts have been and are still being made to popular- 
ize the use of Forest Service uniforms, the wearing of which 
may possibly become general, if not compulsory, within the 
near future. The two principal varieties of proposed uniform 
goods are a whipcord of serge and a cloth closely approximating 
this in nature and being especially strong and durable. Officers 
who favor the use of uniforms base their opinion on the necessity 
for two things, viz., the neatness of appearance of the officer 
as compared with his appearance in ordinary civiHan clothing, 
and the beneficial educational effect on the general public, and 
upon transients in particular. 

The following suggestions, therefore, are applicable chiefly 
to campers in general, and if followed by Forest officers should 
be so modified, so far as purchases are concerned, as to meet with 
official approval upon the particular Forests to which such 
officers are to be assigned. 

Hat. — A hat for general field wear should be of the best grade 
obtainable, since the cheaper grades soon lose their shape, become 
limp and uncomfortable, and are eventually more costly than 

1 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



n 



the better grades. A $5.00, thirty-ounce hat will give the 
best all-round service. The crown should be 43^ or 5 inches 
high (a low crown is uncomfortably warm in summer) and the 
brim should be flexible and 3 or 3M inches wide. A stiff brim is 
to be avoided, especially where the hat is to be worn in thick 
underbrush or during very windy weather. In color a nutria 
tan is preferable. A black hat is uncomfortably warm in summer, 
and when wet invariably stains the wearer's forehead and face. 
Much less difficulty will be experienced in keeping the hat on in 
brush or during windy weather if the leather sweat-band is 
removed. 

To Use a Hat as a Drinking-Cup. — The brim is folded upward 
against the sides of the crown and_ held there with one hand 
across the crown. 

The end of the brun nearest the thumb and forefinger is then 
dipped into the water and the other end submerged later, allowing 
the brim to fill. The water is taken from the end most con- 
venient, usually the one first dipped into the water. 

If it becomes necessary to water a horse from a pool or stream 
to which the animal is unable to gain access a hat may be used 
in lieu of a bucket. In such a case the animal takes the water, 
from the inverted crown. 

Cap. — The most serviceable cap is leather-covered, wool- 
lined, fitted with ear tabs and forehead and neck protector, and 
costs from $1.25 to $10.00, according to style and finish. Its 
use is not recommended, however, unless the weather is so 
extremely cold that comfort can not be secured by wearing a hat. 

Coat. — A coat will be found of Httle or no practical value except 
for use in lounging about camp. The heavy ready-made work- 
coats are not constructed in a way that aUows a field man as 
much freedom of motion as his work requires, and if one is to be 
used it should be at least two sizes larger than that usually 
worn. A common "denim" jumper will give much better 
satisfaction and Wear better than a coat. It is made with 
from two to five pockets, is short-bodied, buttons close up under 
the chin, and is ahnost indestructible. The cost varies from 
80 cents to $1.50. 

Coat Sweater. — This is not recommended for use in brushy 
country. However, if one is to be worn it should be of the best 
grade, made with two pockets, a roll collar, and to button to the 
top. The cost is about $5.00. 



EQUIPMENT 3 

Slicker. — ^A cheap slicker is to be avoided. The best grade 
weighs but Httle more and will give much greater satisfaction. 
For general field use the yellow pommel sUcker, made with 
adjustable wristlets, re-enforced shoulders, throat latch, and one 
outside pocket, and weighing about six and one-half pounds, is 
recommended. The cost varies from $2.50 to $3.50. 

Shirt. — A shirt for both summer and winter wear should be of 
the regular medium weight, army woolen variety, with double 
back, two pockets, and wide collar. It will cost from $2.50 
to $5.00. 

Trousers. — Common "denim" overalls are recommended for 
general rough field work. They should be well riveted, bibless, 
with top front pockets, watch pocket, and two hip pickets. 
They cost from sixty cents to $1.50 per pair. 

Corduroy is extremely heavy and stiff when wet, and except in 
the very best grades the nap soon wears off and breaks appear 
at wrinkles. The cloth is easily torn and is otherwise unsatis- 
factory as trousers material. A good grade of whipcord will give 
much better satisfaction than corduroy. 

Underwear. — Medium weight, full length, woolen underwear 
for both summer and- winter wear will be found generally more 
comfortable than other varieties. Cotton wear is cold and 
clammy when wet, and if the wearer stops exercising when warm 
he is quite Hable to take cold. Woolen wear does not possess 
this disadvantage. The wearer may even plunge into water, 
and if he wrings his underwear thoroughly upon emerging may 
replace it and feel no ill effects later. Fleece-hned wear is 
not recommended. Suits vary in price from $1.50 to $5.00. 

FOOTWEAR 

Here again personal experience must dictate what purchases 
should be made, and the following remarks on the subject of 
footwear are offered only as a general guide for the field man 
who has never before encountered the question of comfortable 
footwear in outdoor work. 

Work Shoes.- — If considerable walking is to be done, such as in 
surveying or timber cruising, shoes should have wide, roomy toes 
and low, flat heels. They should be made to lace rather than 
to buckle or button. Low-cut styles allow snags and brush to 
injure the ankles and insteps; moreover, the entrance of leaves. 



4 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN | 

twigs, gravel, etc., soon requires their removal. A pair of forty- 
or fifty-ounce elkskin, fuU-vamped, heavy-soled, screw-fastened, 
seamless shoes, costing from $2.50 to $5.00 will give general 
satisfaction. They may be ordered with or without hob-nails. 

Shoe Strings. — Cloth shoe strings should not be included in 
the camp equipment; they are too easily frayed, worn through, 
or broken to prove satisfactory. The best material from which 
shoe strings can be made is buckskin, whang leather, or lace 
leather, such strings costing from five to fifteen cents per pair. 
Eelskin also makes very strong, durable strings. . ; 

Hob-Nails. — These are short heavy nails fitted with large 
heads and designed for the protection of shoe soles and heels. 
Common hob-nails have large round, smooth heads, Bulgarian 
nails have extra large serrated heads, and Swiss and EngHsh 
edging nails have large pyramidal heads fitted with lips which 
extend upward outside of and act as protection to the sole 
edges. Lengths vary from }4 inch to 1}-^ inches. The points 
are not symmetrically fashioned like those of common wire nails, 
but are cut long at one side in order to lead the shank of the 
nail in any desired direction. Therefore, in driving hob-nails 
near the edge of the sole, this long side of the point is set toward 
the center of the sole, and thus prevents the point from emerging 
outside of the upper leather. Nails long enough to reach com- 
pletely through the sole should not be used. They are excellent 
conductors and will prove very uncomfortable in extreme weather. 

Soles should be nailed only along the edges with possibly one 
or two rows of nails through the center. Too many nails are 
detrimental rather than beneficial, this being due to the fact 
that a sole driven full of nails burns, breaks, or weakens sooner 
than one carrying only a few nails. Moreover, the wearer's 
progress is retarded rather than assisted if large numbers of 
nails are used, the reason for this being that so many nail-heads 
set close together present an almost even iron surface to the 
ground, and thus cause sHpping. 

Shoe Calks. — These are screws fitted with sharp heads and 
are used to prevent slipping when the shoe shank is set against 
a log. They are inserted in the shank by means of a short wrench 
which works against the squared shoulders. The points soon 
become dull and blunt when used in rocky country, and for this 
reason calks are not recommended for field use. 

Heel Plates. — These are flat iron plates shaped hke horse- 



EQUIPMENT 5 

shoes and punched for attachment to the shoe heels. Their 
use is much more Ukely to cause sHpping on flat stones or logs 
than if they are not used. A row of hob-nails driven along the 
outer edge of the heel is much more effective than a heel plate. 

Bootees. — Many field men prefer these to shoes for general 
outdoor use and contend that the extra weight involved is more 
than offset by the increased protection afforded the ankles and 
shins. However, bootees should not exceed 15 inches in height 
nor sixty ounces in weight. The 15-inch, bellows-tongue, full- 
vamp, screw-fastened, double-sole, toe-capped variety, costing 
from $5.00 to $7.00, will give general satisfaction. Side gussets 
at the top or ankle hang in brush and weeds, and impede 
progress in traveling. Moccasin bootees, not having toe caps, 
allow stumps, logs, and stones to bruise the wearer's toes. Eye- 
lets are preferable to hooks. The latter hang in brush, the laces 
are torn out, and the wearer must be continually relacing them. 
Eyelets require a httle more time in lacing and unlacing, but 
during a day's tramp the extra time involved is more than com- 
pensated by the avoidance of constantly relacing hooks. Side 
buckles at the top are not only unnecessary, but they also present 
an added means of annoyance in thick brush. Outside counters 
soon rip loose. 

Riding Boots. — ^The boots known as "stockmen's riding 
boots" should not be worn if much walking is to be done. The 
heels are too high and the toes are too narrow to prove com- 
fortable in such work, and their use in general field work is not 
recommended. Another style of boot, however, having low flat 
heels and wider toes, is a general favorite among officers whose 
work involves both riding and walking. If these are worn it 
is suggested that they be made to order and a good fit secured. 
The cost should not exceed $10.00. 

The regulation stockman's boot, used so extensively in the 
West, usually has a fancy stitched 17-inch top, stitched sole, 
13^- or 2-inch heel, and a pair weighs from sixty to eighty ounces. 
The cost per pair varies from $4.00 to as high as $30.00 or $40.00, 
according to style and finish. 

Other officers prefer ordinary shoes and spiral cloth leggings. 
Contrary to a general behef , these leggings are not uncomfortably 
warm. They originated among the natives of East India and 
were subsequently adopted by the British Army. Incidentally, 
where walking must be done, they prove excellent protection 



6 HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

against snake bites, experiments having shown that the poison 
of a rattlesnake will not penetrate two thicknesses of ordinary 
blotting paper. The cost per pair should not exceed $1.50. 

Moccasins. — Except in the north woods of Maine, Wisconsin, 
and Minnesota, or in other localities where conditions render 
them a suitable form of footwear, these should be supphed only 
for camp use. They are too soft and offer too little protection 
to the feet to prove comfortable in general field use, and they 
are especially uncomfortable when used in riding. They may 
be low cut, ankle high or even higher, but for camp use the low- 
cut variety is recommended. The tan-colored, twenty-ounce, 
single-tie style costs from seventy-five cents to $3.00 per pair. 

Rubber Boots. — In order to be water-proof these must neces- 
sarily be air-proof, and for that reason cannot be recommended 
for field use. If he must work in water the field man will find 
common leather shoes preferable to rubber boots, this being 
especially true of such work in warm weather. 

The best style for occasional wear about camp has rubberized 
duck vamps, rolled sole, weighs about sixty-four ounces per pair, 
and costs from $3.00 to $6.00. Hip- or thigh-boots weigh but 
little more and cost from $4,75 to $7.50 per pair. 

Storm Rubbers. — Ordinarily the field man has neither room 
in his pack nor use in his work for storm rubbers. They are 
only useless burdens and should not be included in the fist of 
footwear. 

Socks. — Medium-weight woolen socks are recommended for 
both summer and winter wear, and for the same reasons that 
woolen underwear is recommended. It not infrequently hap- 
pens, however, that such footwear proves especially unsatis- 
factory in individual cases, and in such event the field man 
should of course procure whatever style of socks he has found 
most satisfactory. Woolen socks vary in price from twenty- 
five cents to $1.00. 

Hose Supporters. — Supporters which encircle the leg at or 
near the calf should be avoided if continued walking is to be 
done. Their chief disadvantage hes in the fact that they must 
be drawn so close about the leg that circulation is impeded when 
it should be especially free and regular. The small two-ended 
clip, costing ten cents, is recommended for general use. If 
these cannot be secured the socks may be pinned to the drawer 



EQUIPMENT 7 

HANDKERCHIEFS 

Nothing in this Hne is better for field use than a common five- 
or ten-cent bandana. Red will be found preferable to blue, as the 
latter fades when wet, the stain being removed from the user's 
skin only with difficulty. 

BEDDING 

Quilts, comforters, sheets, and pillows are unnecessary articles 
of bedding for field use. The first two are bulky and heavy, are no 
warmer than blankets and dry very slowly when wet; furthermore 
they seem to attract moisture and always feel clammy and damp. 
Sheets soon become grimy, are easily torn, and do not add ma- 
terially to the comfort of a camp bed. - A coat, sweater, or other 
clothing may be roUed up and used for a pillow. 

A very comfortable, durable, and easily packed bed may be 
had by the use of one four-pound and two six-pound double 
woolen blankets 72 by 84 inches in size. These cost from $4.00 
to $6.00 and $6.50 to $9.00, respectively. If it is felt that such 
bedding is too expensive for camp use horse blankets may be 
used as a substitute ^nd will prove very comfortable. A five- 
pound blanket 76 by 80 inches in size costs about $2.00; one 
84 by 90 inches, weighing eight pounds, costs about $3.00; and a 
ten-pound blanket 90 by 96 inches costs about $3.50. One of 
each should be secured, dark colors being preferred. 

TARPAULINS 

A tarpaulin is used as protection to bedding when the latter is 
rolled into a pack or made down on the ground. The best size is 
11 by 15 feet, or the same size as a regulation wagon "sheet" 
or ''cover." It should be of not less than eight-ounce duck, 
would weigh approximately ten pounds and would cost about 
$4.00. Ten-ounce material, same size, costs about $5.25, • and 
twelve-ounce about $6.50. No water-proof blanket need be 
included in the bedding if a good grade of tarpaulin is used. 
A 30-foot 3^-inch manila rope is long enough to tie the bed for 
packing and costs from thirty to fifty cents. 

DUFFLE BAGS 

Trunks, suit cases, grips, or satchels should never be taken on 
extended camping trips; the rough usage incident to packing or 
to other forms of transportation will soon destroy them and call 



8 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

for the purchase of new articles. Aside from this fact they are 
very inconvenient to handle, especially if packing is to be the 
means of transportation. 

Extra clothing and other personal equipment can best be 
carried in a heavy canvas bag known as a "duffle" bag, which 
can be purchased from any firm handhng sporting goods. Such 
a bag is fitted with a canvas loop or handle at one end and with 
another at the side; the top has an inside hood supposed to be 
water-proof, and the bag is fastened shut with a drawstring or 
bar lock passed through the eyelets at the open end. As a 
matter of fact, however, these bags are usually constructed in 
such a manner that they are too long and narrow to prove 
satisfactory either in packing or unpacking them. 

One which has been used in the field for more than six years, 
and which has withstood the roughest usage and given complete 
satisfaction in every respect, was made to order for $3.50. It is 
of extra heavy canvas, 34 inches deep, 22 inches wide, and has 
an extra heavy leather bottom riveted through the canvas into 
a heavy leather inside collar. The top is fitted with a pliant 
2-inch leather band bearing sixteen %-inch eyelets. A /^le- 
inch forged D-ring is attached to a leather re-enforcement on one 
side of the bag 6 inches below the top, and a second similar ring 
is likewise attached to the leather bottom. 

A 2-inch leather strap, fitted with a heavy harness snap at 
either end, is attached to the two rings and has proven very 
convenient in carrying the bag or attaching it to a pack-saddle. 
Except at the open end, which has no inside hood, the bag is 
absolutely water-proof, although it has been run over by 
wagons, kicked about by fractious pack-animals, and otherwise 
been given the most severe treatment. It is fastened shut by 
means of a buckskin thong passing through the eyelets. 

In filhng, or packing, duffle bags, care must be taken not to 
place hard or sharp articles immediately against the canvas sides, 
or the canvas wiU be cut or worn through. 

Small articles may be confined in smaller canvas bags and the 
latter finally packed in the big bag. One of the small bags may 
hold pins, needles, thread, thimble, and similar articles; another 
may be used for packing tobacco, pipes, matches, or match 
cases; and a small medicine kit may be carried in still another. 
These small bags should be fitted with leather drawstrings and 
kept closed when packed in the duffle bag. 



EQUIPMENT 



CANTINAS 



These are leather bags supplied to field men who are 
to do considerable riding. They are made in pairs and are 
designed to be carried at the saddle horn or fork. Each large bag 
is fitted with a smaller outer bag 5 inches wide, 8 inches long, 
and 1 inch deep. The large bags are 83^ inches wide, 11 inches 
long, and 3M inches deep, made bellows fashion and equipped 
with 10-inch flaps which cover both the large and small bag 
and which are made to buckle down. At the upper edge of 
the flap a ^-inch strap 14 inches long buckles across into the 
flap of the other bag of a pair and serves as a handle by which 
the bags may be carried when they are to be used otherwise 
than on horseback. Two 6-inch straps, set 13^ inches apart, 
also connect the two bags and hold them to the saddle horn. 

EQUIPMENT FOR A FIELD TRIP 

Clothmg. — The greatest problem involved in providing cloth- 
ing for a field trip is not so much what to include but what to 
exclude from the baggage. The inexperienced person invariably 
burdens himself with a large amount of excess baggage which 
he finds later is of no use to him. Meanwhile, he suffers more or 
less inconvenience in transporting it about from place to place. 

It is of course utterly impractical to compile a Hst of clothing and 
then declare that such articles are sufficient and that no others 
are necessary for any field trip and regardless of all conditions. 

It is possible, however, to compile a hst suitable for given 
conditions and to use such a hst as a basis for determining 
approximately what equipment may be needed to meet other 
conditions and it is with this idea in view that the following 
lists are suppHed. It is assumed that the work to be done is 
timber cruising, that the country to be covered varies in altitude 
from one thousand to six or seven thousand feet and hes approxi- 
mately in latitude 40° north and that the work is to be done 
during the period from May to August. Normal chmatic con- 
ditions incident to such work would justify the field man in 
providing himseK with about the foUowong clothing: 

Underwear. — Four suits, medium weight, woolen, full length, 
to be changed often. 

Shirts. — Four, medium weight, woolen, good grade. 

Trousers. — Three pairs of denim overalls. 



10 HANDBOOK FOR EANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Socks. — Twelve pairs, medium weight, woolen, to be changed 
often and kept in good repair. 

Shoes. — Two pairs, low, flat heels, roomy toes, high tops, 
capped, hob-nailed sole and heel edges, to lace. 

Hat. — Soft felt, 3- or 3M-inch flexible brim, 4- or 5-inch crown. 

Coat. — Denim jumper. 

Other equipment that may be included with the above is: 

Handkerchiefs. — Three bandanas, preferably red. 

Shoe Laces. — Two extra pairs, buckskin or lace leather. 

Shoes. — One pair, low cut, soft, for camp wear. 

Housewife. — Carrying pins, needles, thread, small scissors, 
bachelor buttons, yarn for darning. 

Stationery. — Stamped envelopes and paper for all personal 
correspondence. Official correspondence is on official stationery 
and is covered under frank. Paper and envelopes are supplied. 

The toilet set should include: 

Shaving Outfit. 

Pocket Comh. 

Pocket Mirror. 

Six Bars Toilet Soap. 

Two Towels. 

Tooth Brush and Dentifrice. 

One Extra Pocket Knife. 

It may seem that the foregoing hsts are rather limited, but 
under present-day conditions the field man is seldom stationed 
so far from country stores or post-offices that he is unable to 
purchase or order any extra supplies he may need. 

For a list of camp bedding, see page 7. Cots are not recom- 
mended for winter use. They permit such free circulation of 
air beneath the bed that practically twice as much bedding is 
required to assure comfort. 

Camp suppHes are hsted on page 30, and cooking utensils 
on page 28. 

RIDING 

The following remarks on the subject of riding equipment 
are not offered as suggestions to experienced horsemen; their 
sole aim is to furnish inexperienced field men with a general idea 
of what equipment they may depend upon for practical results 
until their own experience will enable them to select equipment 
more in accord with their individual tastes. 

Bridle. — This should be fight but strong, and fancy conchas. 



EQUIPMENT 



11 



heavy rosettes and heavy nose pieces and superfluous straps and 
buckles should be avoided. Such impedimenta are uncom- 
fortable in extreme weather, and, contrary to a general idea among 
a certain class of horsemen, do not add to the real value of nor 
contribute favorably to the appearance of a bridle. The bridle 
may or may not be fitted with a brow band and throat latch, 
although these pieces are recommended for use on animals that 
have developed the habit of "rubbing the bridle," i.e., removing 
it by rubbing against a tree, post, or similar object. One form 




Fig. 1.— Bridles. 



of bridle is fitted with ear holes instead of a brow band, but in 
most cases does not prove as comfortable or effective as one 
with a brow band. 

The bridle shown at the left of Fig. 1 has J^-inch double 
cheeks, ^-inch throat latch, brow band and curb strap, wide 
layer crown piece, bar buckles, sewn-in rings, and J^-inch reins 
6 feet long. It weighs approximately thirty-six ounces and can 
be bought for $2.00 or $2.50. 

The one shown at the center of the same figure is made of 
clarified rawhide, plaited in four strands, and has no buckles or 
rings, the cheek pieces being regulated by adjustment of the 
side loops. It weighs ten ounces and costs from $1.50 to $2.00, 
without the reins or bit. It is so subject to stretching when wet 
and shrinking as it dries that it will not give satisfaction. 

A side view of an ear bridle is shown at the right in the same 



12 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

figure. It has K-inch cheeks and 1-inch spUt crown, weighs 
about ten ounces, and costs $1.00 without the reins or bit. 

Horsehair reins and headstalls are not recommended because 
the loose hair ends of the former are uncomfortably rough to 
the rider's bare hands and of the latter irritate an animal's skin. 

Bit. — The best all-round riding bit, and one that can safely 
be recommended for general field work, is the regulation miUtary 









Fig. 2. — Bits. 



curb bit shown at a in Fig. 2. It weighs sixteen ounces and costs 
from $1.75 to $2.00. Other styles of bit are the blued Mexican 
curb, shown at h in the same figure, weighing eleven ounces and 
costing from fifteen to twenty-five cents; the swivel ring-bar 
bit, shown at c, weighing seventeen ounces and costing $1.00; 
the low port bit, shown at d, bearing a roller, weighing fourteen 
ounces and costing seventy-five cents; and the Kentucky bar 
braced racking bit, shown at e, weighing thirteen ounces and 
costing fifty cents. It is especially constructed for very light 
work. The wrought port mule bit, shown at /, is designed for 
extra hard usage, weighs fifteen ounces and costs from fifteen to 
twenty-five cents. 

Silver-mounted or engraved bits are not recommended. They 



EQUIPMENT 



13 



are usually too heavy and expose an animal's mouth to too 
much heat or frost to give general satisfaction. 

Hackamore. — This is merely a variety of hght, strong halter 
used chiefly in breaking, training, or controlling saddle animals. 
It may also be used to advantage when injuries to an animal's 
mouth prohibit the use of a bit. In using it it is simply hung on 
an animal's head, and a rope which has been tied about the 
animal's neck is then passed through 
the bozal, indicated at a in Fig. 3, 
and upward to the rider's hand. If 
the animal is to be trained to turn to 
the left the rope may be puUed stead- 
ily, or, if a double rein is being used, 
the right rein is held against the neck 
and the left rein is pulled. In turning 
to the right the left rein is dra\sTi 
tightly against the left side of the neck, 
while the right rein is puUed. In this 
way an animal is soon taught to 
"neck rein," and after the bit is used 
no pressure against it is required in 
turning the animal. The hackamore 
shown in Fig. 3 is of rawhide with a 
double-looped bozal, over plaited nose 
piece, flat double-plaited cheeks and 
brow band and adjustable crown 

piece. No brow band is necessary in most instances. Such a 
hackamore weighs approximately twelve ounces and costs from 
$3.50 to S5.00. 

Saddle Blanket. — The most satisfactory blanket that can be 
obtained for steady riding is one made of three or four thick- 
nesses of tow or "gunny" sacks carefuDy cleaned of aU knots, 
bunches, and other uneven surfaces and sewn together around 
the edges. Such a blanket should be about 1 inch longer and 
wider than the under surface of the saddle skirts. When wet 
with perspiration or water it should be dried in the shade and 
care must be taken to see that burrs, twigs, etc., are not allowed 
to stick to either side. 

Thickly padded, air-tight, bunchy, or ribbed blankets should 
not be used. A very thin blanket is sufficient under a properly 
fitting saddle, and if the saddle fits so poorly that numerous 




Fig. 3. — Hackamore. 



14 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



extra thicknesses of blanket are necessary it should either be 
discarded or rebuilt. 

Saddle. — This is a question upon which few horsemen agree, 
and the inexperienced person who seeks advice from them may- 
expect to receive as many different suggestions as the number of 
men he interviews. 

However, a saddle having about the following specifications 
will give general satisfaction for all- 
round field work until the new man 





Stock saddle. 



Fig. 4. 



Military saddle. 



learns enough about the subject to select something more to 
his own taste: 

Tree. — 15-inch, 14-inch swelled steel fork, leather - covered 
steel horn. 




Side '-*™™^ '^ Front 
Fig. 5. — Saddle-tree. 

Seat. — In one piece with the jockeys and not too erect in the 
cantle. 

Skirts. — Wool-Hned, from 26 to 28 inches by 12 to 14 inches, 
round corners, laced to tree. 



EQUIPMENT 



15 



Rig. — Double. (This particular point furnishes more ground 
for contention among riders than any other single one, some 
declaring in favor of a double rig, some preferring a single rig, 




Front 




Rear 
Fig. 6. — Cinches. 

others advocating a three-quarters rig, and still others asserting 
that a five-eighths rig is best.) 

Cinches. — Twenty strand Angora, front; 33^-inch belt web, 
rear; both fitted with leather chafes. 

Latigoes. — Off side: 1% inches wide, 20 inches long, double 




Fig. 7. — Iron stirrups. 

to loop through ring of rig; near side: 1% inches wide, 7 
long, punched to buckle into cinch ring or cinch buckle. 

Stirrup Straps. — 2% inches wide, to buckle. 

Stirrups. — Steel, leather-covered and lined. 

Fenders. — 9 by 16 inches. 

Tapaderas. — Short, "monkey nose," one piece. 

Finish. — Plain. 

Weight. — Thirty pounds. 

Cost.— From $30.00 to $40.00. 



feet 



16 



HANDBOOK FOE RANGEKS AND WOODSMEN 



Swelled forks are preferable to straight forks on account of 
the extra thigh grip they afford. A wide flat seat will prove 




Fig. 8. — Single rig seat plate. 




Monkey Nose 



Mule Ear 



Fig. 9. — Tapaderas. 




UVJ vv 



Fig. 10. — Saddle horns. 



much more comfortable than a high narrow one. Steel stirrups 
are practically indestructible, will outlast any ordinary saddle, 



EQUIPMENT 17 

and when lined with leather are not appreciably hotter or colder 
than wooden stirrups. Long "mule-ear" tapaderas are not only 
a source of useless and extra weight, but are even troublesome in 
thick underbrush, and, contrary to a prevalent idea, cannot be 
thrust forward at such times to protect a 
horse's forelegs. Cinch buckles facihtate .^^^^ 

fastening and unfastening the cinch and, ^^^^^^^ 

opinions of some horsemen to the contrary ^^^^^^^^m 
notwithstanding, do not break any oftener ^^^^^^^S 
than latigoes and cinch rings. In attach- ^^H^BlP^ 
ing them to the latigo the latter is run ^^p^^^^ 

through the upper sht from the rear, back ^^^3^ 

through the ring in the rig from the front, 
then down through the lower slit of the '^ucMe ^th^hSe 
buckle from the rear. The loose end of the attached, 
latigo is then hung up in the loop provided 
for it under the fork or just back of the cantle edge at the rear. 
Single and three-quarter rigs will not prove satisfactory for 
all-round work; they are designed for certain forms of horse- 
back work and can seldom be used successfully otherwise. The 
rear cinch of a double rig seldom need be used, the chief advan- 
tage of such a rig being the location of the front ring. 

Deeply engraved or hand-carved trimmings are to be avoided. 
They increase the cost of a saddle without adding to its prac- 
tical value and render cleaning and oiUng more difficult. 

Spurs. — These are almost indispensable when western-trained 
horses are to be ridden, but are otherwise an unnecessary part 
of the riding equipment. Three general styles are sho*wn in 
Fig. 12. The one indicated at a is best suited to general field 
work. The fork or counterpiece should be at least ^-inch 
wide, the shank should be not less than 2 inches long, and the 
rowel should have a diameter of at least 1)4 inches. Heavy 
silver ornaments, such as large buttons, bells, knobs, and chains, 
not only fail to increase the practical value of a spur but also 
render it uncomfortably heavy and unnecessarily expensive. A 
pair of spurs similar to those described above can be purchased 
for $1.50 or $2.00. 

Spur straps should be wide enough at the center to cover the 
entire instep. If laced shoes are worn narrow straps wiU allow 
the chaparejo cuffs to cut the laces, and if boots are worn the 
cuffs will eventually cut through the insteps. 



18 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGEES AND WOODSMEN 



Other spurs, very seldom used in field work, are shown in 
the same figure. A '^ heel " spur is shown at b and is designed 





Fig. 12. — Spurs. 

to be screwed into the boot heel, where it is made fast by means 
of a small set screw beneath the rowel. 

The "whip" spur, shown at c, is fitted with a flat band through 
which the whip butt is thrust. A spur strap is shown at d. 

Quirt. — Ordinarily the field man need not burden himself with 
a quirt, but if an unusually vicious animal is to be ridden and 
can not be well controlled with the reins and spurs a quirt may 



' ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^mtmwm^^ 



Fig. 13. — Quirts. 



prove of considerable advantage. Two styles of quirt are shown 
in Fig. 13. The upper one is of plaited rawhide with loaded butt, 
weighs from twelve to sixteen ounces, and costs from sixty to 
seventy-five cents. The lower one is of sewn leather, shot- 
loaded, and costs about fifty cents. 

Chaparejos. — These are commonly known as "shaps" and are 
indispensable in brushy country, where a rider's legs and trousers 



EQUIPMENT 



19 



require continual protection. Three general styles are shown 
in Fig. 14. For all-round work the ones shown at a, known as 
" Texas," or " bat-" or " buzzard-wings," are recommended. 
They are fitted with a series of rings and snaps which hold the 
legs shut. By reason of the fact that these shaps need not be 






Fig. 14. — Chaparejos. 



drawn on and off over the feet but may be unsnapped at the 
sides, they are much more convenient than the closed leg varie- 
ties. Furthermore, if spurs are. worn, these need not be re- 
moved if the shaps are to be laid aside temporarily. Such shaps 
should be of oiled leather with side extensions not wider than 
5 inches. Five rings and snaps are preferable to a larger number. 
The weight should not exceed five or six pounds and the cost 
varies from $13.00 to $15.00, plain finish. 

A heavier variety of these shaps is made for use in extra 
brushy country and for corral work, where the rider's thighs 
and hips are subjected to constant pressure of the rope. The 
belt is extra wide and thick and the legs fasten shut from the 
inside with loops and leather buttons. The leather is extra 
heavy and stiff and the price runs from $18.00 to $25.00, plain 
finish. 

The closed leg variety, shown at h, costs from $15.00 to as 
much as the purchaser wishes to pay for extra fancy style and 
finish. 



20 HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

The hair front variety, shown at c, can not be recommended 
for any kind of field work. They are not only heavier than the 
plain leather varieties, but are also very unsatisfactory in brushy 
country, where the hair is continually hanging and being torn 
out. Moreover, in stormy weather, the hair catches and holds , 
rain, snow, or sleet and the shaps soon become too heavy for 
comfort. The cost runs from $15.00 to as high as the purchaser 
wishes to pay for finish. 

PACKING 

In most parts of the West, where travel facihties are usually 
more or less limited, suppUes and equipment must often be 
transported from place to place by means of pack-animals, but 
throughout the greater part of the South and Southeast trans- 
portation is by means of wagons. It is therefore advisable for 
the camper or woodsman to ascertain previously whether or 
not he will have use for a pack outfit in the section he expects 
to enter. 

PACK-SADDLE 

Muley. — This style of pack-saddle derives its name from 

the construction of its forks, illustrated in Fig. 15. They are 

rounded off at the top, and ropes or other 

fastenings are passed through under the bow. 

Mexican packers of the Southwest, who 

often construct their own pack-saddles, hew 

these forks from the crotches of Umbs of 

some tough wood such as Gambel oak 

Fig. 15. Fork of (Quercus Gamhelli) or Arizona white-oak 

^dl^^ ^^^ ' (^* Arizonica). These are then nailed or 

bolted securely to the saddle-bars and the 

whole is usually, though not always, covered with rawhide. 

Cross-Tree. — This saddle has forks made as shown in Fig. 16, 
although the rounded opening beneath the cross may not appear 
in some varieties. Ropes may be passed around or through 
such forks, and in either case will not work off unless loosened. 
The cross-tree saddle is recommended for field work. 

Combination. — Another form of tree seldom used in packing is 
a combination pack and riding tree, but this is not recommended 
for any field use whatever. The cross-tree affords much better 
facihties for fastening the pack to the saddle, weighs only about 




EQUIPMENT 21 

six pounds, and can be bought for $1.50; the combination tree 
weighs twelve pounds and costs $3.50. For illustration of pack- 
saddle parts (cross-tree) see Fig. 18. 

Parts. — In order to present a more definite idea of what the 




Cross tree pack saddle. Fork of cross tree pack saddle. 

Fig. 16. 




Fig. 17. — Combination pack and riding saddle-tree. 

best form of pack-saddle should be, specifications of each part 
are given as follows : 

Breeching. — This should be of ordinary 3-inch back-band 
web with 13^-inch side and hip straps. To be most effective 
both the latter should be lengthened till the breeching works 
beiow the points of the hips rather than close up under the root 
of the tail. Such breeching costs about $1.00. 

Breast Collar. — The body of the breast coUar should also be 
of 3-inch back-band web and fitted wdth 134-inch leather side 
straps. If the latter are left long enough to aUow the collar 
to fall too far below the points of the shoulders the animal will 
experience more or less difficulty in travehng. If allowed to 
work above the shoulder points it may cause the anim.al to 
choke down when steep grades are ascended. Proper regulation 
will allow it to work just below the points of the shoulders. If 
necessary a strap may be fastened from one side strap over the 



22 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



animal's neck to the other. The cost of such a collar is about 
$1.00. ' 

Cinches. — The best cinches for all-round work are of 4-inch 




Breeching. 




Breast collar. 




Cinch. 
Fig. 18. — Pack-saddle parts. 



folded canvas fitted with a forged ring in each end. If rear 
cinches are to be used they should be made of the same material. 
The cost is about sixty-five cents. 

Latigoes. — These may be known as " tie straps " and are used 
in connecting the cinches to the rigging. They should be not less 
than 3}4 feet long and 134 inches wide, and should be made to 
tie rather than buckle. They cost about twenty-five cents 
each. 

Rig. — The rigging of any saddle is that part into which the 
cinches are fastened by means of the latigoes. They may be 
either single or double in pack-saddles, the one providing for only 
one cinch, the other for two. They shoidd be well looped about 



EQUIPMENT 



23 



the forks and securely nailed to the saddle bars. The single 
rig costs seventy-five cents, the double $1.25. 

Full-Rigged Saddle. — A single rig, cross-tree pack-saddle, 
biu-ro size, with. 13^-inch rig, wrapped about the forks and 
nailed to the bars, 134-inch latigoes, 3-inch back-band web, 
breeching of the same material with 1%- or iM-inch leather 




Fig. 19. — Full-rigged pack-saddle. (Single rig.) 




side straps, and 4-inch folded canvas cinches, weighs approxi- 
mately nine pounds and can be purchased for from $4.50 to 
$6.00; double-rigged it w^eighs ten pounds and costs about $6.00 
to 17.00; horse size, double rig, costs about 
$8.00. 

Lash Rope and Cinch. — These are used in 
fastening the top pack to the saddle. The cinch 
should be of 4-inch folded canvas fitted at one 
end with a forged ring and at the other with 
an iron lash hook. Together with 30 feet of 
3^-inch manila rope it can be pm-chased for 
about $1.75. 

Panniers. — These are heavy canvas bags equipped with 
leather loops to hang over the saddle forks. They are con- 
venient receptacles in which to pack small loose articles, but 
are by no means absolutely essential to a pack outfit and are 
not recommended for general field use. The loops soon wear out 
or break, the canvas tears or wears through, and continual re- 
pairing soon becomes necessary. Ordinary "gunny" sacks or 



Fig. 20. — Lash 
hook. 



24 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

heavy flour or feed sacks will serve the purpose as well, and when 
badly worn or damaged may be discarded without loss. Instead 
of being attached to the saddle by means of loops these are 
fastened with a grain hitch. (See Packing, p. 147.) 

ANIMAL 

Halters.— These should be suppHed for work- and saddle- 
animals if the nature of the field work requires them to stand 
tied for extended intervals. They may be of leather or rope or 
may consist simply of a tie rope. 

Leather. — The best halter for field use is made of li^-inch 
flat leather, fitted with squares where the cheeks support the 



LEATHER 




Fig. 21. — Halters. 



nose piece and bozal and with rings where the crown and cheeks 
meet. One end of the throat latch is sewed into the off ring 
and the other end is fitted with a snap to hook into the near ring. 
The crown and bozal have buckles to permit lengthening or 
shortening or opening or closing the head-stall, while the cheeks 
and the off end of the crown piece are sewed into the rings which 
carry the throat latch. One end of the tie rope should be 
fitted with a substantial snap to hook into the chin ring, and 
the other end should be tightly wrapped with fine wire, or heavy 
cord. Such a halter, together with the tie rope, costs about 
$1.25. See a in Fig. 21. 



EQUIPMENT 



25 



Ro'pe. — ^A ready-made halter of jute, cotton, or hemp can be 
bought for fifty cents. The crown aijd cheeks are in one piece, 
while the nose piece, bozal, and tie rope are in another. Such a 
halter is light, strong, and serviceable, provided the animal to 
be tied is fairly gentle and well trained. Its chief disadvantage 
lies in the fact that it can be easily slipped if accidentally hung 
over a post, snag, or similar object. 

If a rope halter must be made in the field, a 3^-inch cotton 
rope 12 feet long should be used. An eye splice is made in one 
end of this and the other end is passed through it to form the 
nose piece and bozal. The cheek and crown piece should be cut 
long enough to reach from back of the animal's ears down either 
side of the head to a point about 2 inches above the mouth. 
Ordinarily, it will be from 28 to 36 inches long after it is spliced 
into the other rope, one end being spHced in about 6 inches 
from the eye sphce and the other some 6 or 8 inches farther 
along. The material required for such a halter costs about 
twenty-five cents. See h in Fig. 21. For splices, see p. 335. 

Tie Rope. — This should be of 3^-inch cotton rope, 10. feet 
long, and fitted with a harness snap spliced into one end, the 
other end being ^Tapped with fine wire or heavy cord or 
else knotted in a Turk's head. See Knots, p. 325. An iron 
band, bearing an eye-screw, and especially designed for the pur- 
pose, is then fitted to the rope at a point far enough from the 
snap to aUow the snap to be hooked into the eye after the rope 
has been placed about the animal's neck. The rope wiU cost 
ten cents and the iron band as much more. See c, Fig. 21. 

Hobbles. — A single hobble, sometimes known as a " picket " 
hobble, and a pair of double 
hobbles are illustrated in Fig. 
22. They are for use in tying 
an animal's legs together, and 
thus prevent it from straying 
too far from camp. AU should 
be of 13^-inch leather with 2- 
inch single strap Uning and 
equipped with chains and swiv- 
els. A picket hobble weighs 
about one pound and costs 
$1.00 or $1.25; double hobbles weigh approximately thirty 
ounces and cost the same as picket hobbles. 




Doulfle Holjble 

Fig. 22. 



Picket Hobble 



26 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 




Picket Pin and Rope. — When neither halter nor hobbles arc 
available an animal may be " picketed " out to graze. The 
picket pin and rope shown in Fig. 
23 cost about $1.00. For general 
purposes the rope should be not less 
than 30 feet long and fitted with a 
strong snap at either end to facili- 
tate fastening it into and removing 
it from the pin or hobble. The pin 
should be 15 inches long, and 
equipped with a swivel Jink at the 
upper end. 
Feed Bags. — ^These are known as 
" morrals " in the West and Southwest, where the camp equip- 
ment is not complete without them. They are fitted with a 
crown piece, and after the grain is placed in them are suspended 
from the animal's head. It soon learns to lower its head and 
allow the bag to rest on the ground so that the grain may be 
reached. 

Only the best grades should be used. These are of heavy 
cotton duck or canvas, are double sewed and riveted, have , 



Fig. 23. — Picket pin 
anci rope. 





Fig. 24.— Morrals. 



heavy leather bottoms, lower walls and ventilators, and the 
crown piece is of leather. They weigh approximately thirty 
ounces and cost about $1.50 each. See a in Fig. 24. An im- 
provised morral made from a gunny sack is shown at b. This 
can best be made by seizing one upper corner of the sack, stand- 



EQUIPMENT 



27 



ing on the corresponding lower corner, thrusting a knife-blade 
through both sides of the sack and ripping them out to the 
end. The blade should be thrust through the sack at a point 
about 2 inches in from the edge, as the sack is flattened, and 
14 inches from the bottom. The bag is shown at 5, the pieces 
1 and 2 are tied together and serve as a crown piece, and the 
pieces 3 and 4 are tied together snugly about the animal's jaws 
or thrust under the cheek pieces to prevent loss of grain by spill- 
ing if the animal tosses its head in an attempt to secure the grain. 

Bells. — Animals should be belled when turned out to graze at 
night or during times when they are not to be used. Some of 
them stray to a considerable distance from camp even when hob- 
bled, and unless bells are pro\dded more or less trouble will be 
had in finding them. 

The best camp bells are the small ordinary cow bells gener- 
ally known as " horse " bells. Size No. 5 is S% inches high 
and has a mouth 2^ by 3 inches. It costs twenty cents. Black 
leather bell collars 2 inches mde cost about forty cents. Usually 
one bell to every three or four animals will prove sufficient. 

Combs and Brushes. — These should always be included in the 
field equipment if horses are to be worked or ridden. Two styles 






Fig. 25. — Ciirry-combs and brush. 



of combs are shown in Fig. 25. The one shown at a is recom- 
mended for general field use. It is circular, of sprmg steel, and 
bears three complete circles which work independently on each 
other and which are attached to an iron back by a hinge joint. 
The handle may be of wood or leather. It is strong and com- 



28 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

pact, will stand the hardest kind of treatment, and costs about 
twenty-five cents. 

The comb shown at b is especially unsatisfactory for field use. 
The bars and teeth soon become bent, the handle takes up as 
much room as the comb and may soon work loose or break, 
and the shank may be bent, broken, or otherwise damaged in 
packing. The cost is ten cents. The brush shown at c has a 
heavy wooden back 3 inches wide and 8 inches long with India 
fiber brush 1 3^ inches long. It costs twenty-five cents and should 
be included in the field equipment even if there is no room for 
the comb. 

COOKING 

For Stations. — For permanent stations or camps, the follow- 
ing cooking equipmen^t will be found very convenient. The fist 
is rather elaborate for field work, but where the field man need 
not pack his kit about from place to place he will find too many 
utensils preferable to too few; furthermore, he may have occa- 
sion to prepare meals for visitors or for local residents who 
may call on business: 

Approximate 
Article Capacity Cost 

1 Dishpan 18 quarts $0 . 50 

1 Coffee-pot 4 quarts . 50 

1 Tea-kettle 6 quarts . 40 

1 Double boiler 1}4 quarts . 40 

1 Water pail 12 quarts . 40 

3 Straight kettles 7 quarts 2 . 80 

2 Pudding pans 3 J^ quarts . 50 

2 Bake pans 4 quarts . 35 

1 Cup 1 quart . 15 

1 Ladle H quart . 05 

1 Dipper J^ quart . 05 

1 Bread-raiser 8 quarts .80 

1 Colander 4 quarts . 25 

1 Frying pan .35 

Total $7.50 

His dinner set should include: 

4 Cups and saucers , $0 . 50 

6 Plates . .75 

3 Bowls, 8-inch .45 

6 Knives and forks, iron handles .75 

6 Teaspoons .15 



EQUIPMENT 29 

Article Approximate 

Cost 

3 Tablespoons $0 . 15 

1 Soiip spoon ,15 

1 Sugar bowl .40 

1 Salt and pepper shaker .35 

1 Meat platter .50 

1 Vegetable dish .60 

Total ^4 . 75 

Other utensils to be used about the kitchen should be : 

1 Garbage bucket •. . . 18 quarts $1 . 25 

1 Wash basin .25 

1 Soap dish and grate .10 

3 Glass jars 2 quarts . 30 

1 Bread box, 8 by 10 by 20 inches .25 

1 Butcher knife .25 

1 Can opener .15 

Total $2.55 

Total cost of cooking outfit. . $14.80 

Ail dishes should be of granite or enamel ware; the cook stove 
should be No. 8, four -holes, iron top, and wood or coal grate, 
and is generally furnished upon requisition. Costs given are 
for enamelware. 

For Temporary Camp.— Two men on a camping trip should 
provide themselves with the following cooking utensils: 

1 Dutch oven with Ud. 2 Tablespoons. 

1 Bucket, galvanized, 18 quarts 1 Kettle, straight, 10 quarts. 

1 Bucket, galvanized, 14 quarts. 1 Kettle, straight, 6 quarts. 

1 Cup, 1 quart. 1 Canteen, gallon. 

2 Cups, 1 pint. 1 Combination can and bottle 

4 Plates. opener. 

1 Butcher knife. 1 Frjdng pan. 

2 Table knives and forks. 

The Dutch oven is a low, flat, heavy iron kettle for use over 
camp fires or live coals. The average size is about 10 inches 
in diameter and from 2 to 3 inches deep. It is fitted with three 
substantial legs and a short, heavy handle. The lid is fitted with 
a raised edge or rim designed to hold five coals and supply heat 
from the top. Other vessels of the kit should be granite or 
enamelware; knives and forks should have iron handles and 
spoons should be of tin. 

Such a kit weighs about twenty-five pounds and costs about 
$5.00. It can be most conveniently packed by dividing it into 



30 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



three parts: The plates, knives, forks, and spoons are carried 
in the Dutch oven, the smaller bucket and the kettles and cups 
are carried in the large bucket, and the frying pan is carried 
separately. 

PROVISIONS 

While the following lists of provisions, compiled for one man 
for thirty days, must be accepted as including only approximate 
amounts, they will be of assistance to the new man when he must 
lay in a supply of such articles.. It should be borne in mind 
also that a variety of food which appeals to one person may not 
suit another and that personal tastes must therefore be con- 
sidered in making out a bill of supplies based on these lists: 



For Stations 

Baking powder 1 pound 

Beans 5 pounds 

Butter 3 pounds 

Canned fruit 10 quarts 

Catsup 1 quart 

Cereals 4 pounds 

Coffee 3 pounds 

Dried fruit 5 pounds 

Eggs 3 dozen 

Flour 30 pounds 

Lard 5 pounds 

Meal 2 pounds 

Meat, salt 8 pounds 

Milk, canned 10 quarts 

Pepper 2 ounces 



Pickles 2 quarts 

Potatoes 25 pounds 

Rice 2 pounds 

Salt 2 pounds 

Soda 8 OTinces 

Spices 1 pound 

Sugar 10 pounds 

Tea 8 oiinces 

Miscellaneous 

Matches, 1 box, 1,000 

Soap, laundry 2 bars 

Soap, toilet 2 bars 

Tobacco 



For Temporary Camps. — Two men expecting to be in camp 
for fifteen days should provide themselves with the following: 



Baking powder 1 pound 

Beans 10 pounds 

Butter 2 pounds 

Canned fruit 8 quarts 

Coffee 4 pounds 

Dried fruit 3 poxmds 

Flour. 35 pounds 

Lard 10 pounds 



Meat, salt 10 pounds 

Milk, canned 8 quarts 

Pepper 4 ounces 

Potatoes 20 pounds 

Rice , 2 pounds 

Salt 2 pounds 

Sugar 8 poimds 



It is also well to include ten or a dozen candles in this list. 
This supply of provisions, together with the cooking outfit, 
hobbles, picket ropes, or extra pack ropes, and bedding for two 
men, can be carried on one pack-animal. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 

TELEPHONE LINES 

GeneraL — Telephone lines are built and maintained by the 
Forest Service chiefly as a means of quicker communication 
between different officers' headquarters or between such head- 
quarters and lookout points. The actual work of construction 
and maintenance, invariably affected by local conditions, is car- 
ried on under specific instructions from the proper office and 
for that reason cannot be discussed in detail here. A few gen- 
eral rules of construction are given, however, merely as guides 
for inexperienced men engaged in this work. 

Costs. — Local conditions affect this problem to such a degree 
that it is impossible to offer any definite suggestions concerning 
cost estimates. Such items as the nature of the ground to be 
worked over, local sources of supply, transportation facihties^ 
the number of " poles in place," the ease or difficulty with which 
other poles may be secured and set, the amount of swamping 
to be done, and the best camp sites available, all affect the ques- 
tion of costs. Lines have been built, where no swinging insu- 
lators were used, for as low as $20.00 per mile. A general state- 
ment of costs in such cases is about as follows: ^ 

No. 9 wire Sll.OO 

Insulators, pony, glass 1 . 05 

Brackets 60 

Spikes , 25 

Labor 7 . 10 

Total $20.00 

Preliminary Survey. — This is made before actual construction 
begins. The proposed route to be followed should be marked 
with stakes set at points where poles are to be set, and these stakes 
should bear any information required by the workmen for proper 
setting of the poles. It may not be advisable to follov%' this sur- 
vey in aU instances, and deviations are permissible if circum- 
stances demand them. 

1 Supplied by Forest Ranger Perry, Special Detail on Telephone 
Construction, Carson National. Forest. 

31 



32 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Location. — Location of telephone lines should be determined 
by the following factors: 

(1) The shortest and most direct route practicable. 

(2) Possibihties of following roads or trails in order that 
first cost of construction and subsequent cost of maintenance 
may be kept at a minimum. ' 

(3) Best points for connection with desired points not on 
the main line or with points of possible future importance. 

(4) Avoidance of canyons and streams exceeding 500 feet in 
width; also of power transmission or electric light lines. Tele-s 
phone lines should not parallel high-power transmission lines 
nearer than 3^ mile. « 

(5) The accessibility of detours necessary to avoid badi 
country or scarcity of pole material. 

(6) The advantage, if any, of increased expense for material ; 
over one route as compared with increased cost of labor over 
another. 

(7) Possibihties of future patrol of the Une as affected by; 
present or proposed bridle trails the entire length of the Une. 

(8) Possibility of securing rights-of-way across private- 
lands. 1 

Equipment. — ^Equipment for the lineman consists of a pair of 
8-inch side-cutting pU^s, a pair of reversible connectors, a light 
ax with a 16-inch handle, a safety belt and strap, a pair of hooks 
or chmbers, and two Buffalo grips with 24 feet of 3^-inch rope. 
Swampers should carry 4-pound double-bitted axes, whetstones, 
and 8-inch files. If required to do any climbing, they should be 
supplied with hooks and safety belt and strap. 

Transportation. — This is not a serious problem if wagons can 
be used, but is more difficult if pack-animals are required. No. 9 
galvanized iron wire, which is the standard wire used by the 
Forest Service, is put up in 3^-mile coils weighing one hundred 
and sixty pounds each. If it is to be packed all the ties except 
one are cut, and this one is re-enforced, the coil is opened in half, 
and two men can then drop it down over a pack-saddle, one- 
half on either side. It should be tied securely to the saddle 
and not allowed to work loose. Insulators and spikes may be 
packed in feed sacks or panniers. Brackets may be strung on 



1 Verbal permission will not suffice. The concession must be drawn 
up in regular form on blanks supplied for the purpose. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 33 

wires, about twenty-five to a wire, each bundle weighing ap- 
proximately sixteen pounds. These may be tied to the saddle 
without difficulty. 

Two pack-animals are required in packing poles. The regular 
size poles may be packed in pairs and should be fastened high 
up on the saddle, the animals working tandem fashion one at 
either end of and between the poles. Short sharp curves must 
be avoided, as the animals will not be able to pass around them. 
Extra long heavy poles must be packed separately and should 
be securely fastened to the tops of the saddles. Burros will be 
found preferable to horses for packing, since the latter usually 
carry their heads too high and are much more likely to become 
excited in case of accidents. 

Right-of-Way Clearance. — Rights-of-way thi*ough timber or 
brush should be wide enough to provide free access of mounted 
patrolmen over the entire length of the fine. Dead or leaning 
timber that may fall across the line and all branches which may 
touch or hang close to the wire should be removed. Rubbish 
and slash resulting from such removal should be carefully dis- 
posed of in order to lessen the fire danger. 

POLES 

Material. — The best poles obtainable are of cedar, such as red 
cedar (Juniperus Virginiana), Western red cedar (/. occidentalis) , 
one-seed juniper (/. monosperma) , rock cedar or mountain juni- 
per (/. sabinoides), California juniper (/. Calif ornica), and Utah 
juniper (/. Utahensis), although the last named seldom reaches 
a height sufficient for standard poles. AUigator or checkered 
bark juniper (/. pachyphlcea) is widely used in the Southwest 
for fence posts, and is also frequently used for telephone poles 
when it is found tall and straight enough for this purpose. 
However, it is too light and brittle to make durable poles. 

Red Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), also known as Douglas 
spruce, is also quite durable and as a rule can be easily obtained 
throughout most parts of the Rocky Mountain regions. Fire- 
killed poles of sugar pine (Pinus Lambertiana) , obtainable in 
nearly all parts of the Northwest, and of Rocky Mountain white 
pine or Umber pine (P. flexilis), found on the eastern slope of 
the Rocky Mountains, are almost as durable as cedar, and gen- 
erally possess the advantage of being aheady peeled and sea- 



34 



HANDBOOK FOR HANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



soned at the time they are cut. Bald cypress {Taxodium dis 
tichum), also known as deciduous cypress, sassafras {Sassafrc 
sassafras), locust (Rohinia pseudacacia), white oak (Quercus alba)' 
post oak (Q. minor), chinquapin {Q. acuminata), and black walnut 
(Juglans nigra), all common to the South and Southeast, are 
likewise durable and make good poles. Redwood (Sequoia sem- 
pervirens), occurring near the Pacific Coast in southwestern 
Oregon and northwestern California, also makes durable poles. ^ 
Dimensions. — The following table shows the dimensions that 
have proven the most satisfactory: 

Length, in Feet 18 22^ 25 30 35 40 45 

Top Diameter, Inches 5 5 5.5 6 6 6.5 7 

2 Length of standard Forest Service pole. 

It is not always possible to obtain poles having exactly these 
dimensions, but the table will serve as a general guide and should 
be followed as closely as possible. 

Preparation. — Only the straightest timber 
should be selected, and if dead must be perfectly 
sound. Poles that are to be used in supporting 
extra long heavy spans of wire or which may oth- 
erwise be subjected to severe strain should be 
of the very best quality of material obtain- 
able. The best time for cutting is when the 
sap is " down " or during the winter months, 
the poles being peeled as soon as cut and all 
large knots, splinters, and chips being hewn. 
away. The upper ends or tops are " roofed " 
or beveled as shown in Fig. 26. The lower 
ends or butts are cut square across. After the 
poles have- been peeled and roofed and other- 
wise properly shaped they are placed where they 
will season, and may be piled in tiers not nearer to each 
other than 6 inches in the same or in different tiers, the lowest 
tier being propped up at least 6 inches above the ground. If 



"Roof 



Fig. 26.- 



1 See following Forest Service publications: 

Bui. 88, Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir, pp. 60 and 62; Bui. 95, i 
Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States (Cedars, Cypresses, 
and Sequoias), pp. 15, 18, 27, 39, 46, and 49; Bui. 99, Uses of Com- 
mercial Woods of the United States (Pines), pp. 56, 72, 75, 82, 87, 
and 92. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 35 

thej' have been cut here and there, one or two in a place, they 
should be propped well up off the groimd and left in such a 
position that as thej' season they will not twist, warp, or rot. 
Seasoning should cover a period of two or tlii-ee months. 

Preservative treatment may be apphed after they are thor- 
oughly seasoned, while they are perfectly diy, and at times when 
they are free of frost. See page 358, Appendix. 

Poles in Place. — These are simply trees growing at convenient 
points for the location of poles along the line and are trimmed 
and topped at the proper height and left standing. T\Tien 
treated in this manner some varieties of timber last better than 
when not. Chief among the more durable ones are Douglass 
fir, white pine (Pinus alhicaulis), and white oak. TMiite fir 
{Abies concolor) and pifion (Pinus edulis) soon rot and do not 
make satisfactory poles in place. Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) 
usually rots within a year or eighteen months, unless the pole 
is very large. Aspen (Popidus trenndoides) may sprout and 
stay green if topped in the spring, as will also most of the oaks. 
The sprouts appear at the point of topping and must be removed 
before they reach a size or length that will allow them to rub 
against the wire and impair communication. Poles in place 
should have a minimum top diameter of 4 inches and should 
have all branches removed. 

Use of Different Lengths. — Standard Forest Service poles are 
used in all cases except: 

(1) When a line crosses a railroad; the wire must be not 
less than 26 feet above the track.^ 

(2) When a fine crosses a wagon road; the wire must be 
not less than 14 feet above the road.i 

(3) ^Tien a line crosses other lines; the \vdre should be not 
less than 18 inches above the other line. 

(4) When fines are run across country where brush exceeds 
10 feet in height; the wu^e should be held at least 4 feet above 
the tops of the brush. 

(5) '\\Tien fines cross country where snow may drift higher 
than 10 feet; the \Nare should be held at least 2 feet above the 
tops of probable drifts. 

(6) \ATien spans exceed 500 feet in length; poles must be 
sufficiently high and heavy to support the extra weight. 

^ Higher if the State laws require it. 



36 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



(7) Where poles must be set at such points that extra long 
spans demand unusual sag; the lowest part of the wire should 
be held high enough to allow uninterrupted passage of travelers 
and stock beneath it. 

Utilization. — In order to secure the greatest stability and 
efficiency of a line, care must be taken to distribute the poles 
where different lengths will do the most 
good. The largest and strongest ones 
should be used at points where the strain 
of the wire is greatest, such as at cor- 
ners, along curves, under long spans and 
at terminals and switching points. Lighter 
and weaker poles should be set at points 
where they will be subjected to only mod- 
erate strain. 

Spaces. — ^Under ordinary circumstances 
straight Unes should have thirty poles to 
the mile, thus making the average pole 
space or length of span 176 feet. If the 
line makes a turn at right angles the 
spaces at either side of the turn should 
not exceed 100 feet in length. This 
same length of span is also used in spans 
adjoining one from 300 to 500 feet in length. It is likewise used 
in short, sharp curves. 

Attaching Brackets and Insulators. — Brackets are attached to 
the poles at right angles to the ridge of the roof and before the 
poles are raised. A 60-D spike is used in the upper hole and 
a 40-D in the lower, knots, thick rough bark, and other irregu- 
larities being hewn away if the brackets are to be attached to 
trees. Brackets are always so attached that after the poles are 
set they will be on the outer side of curves, but when the poles 
carry two Unes then the brackets are placed on exactly opposite 
sides of the poles. They are fitted with the insulators before 
the poles are raised. See Fig. 27. 

Holes. — ^Except where conditions render it impossible or in- 
advisable these should have about the following depths: 




Fig. 27. 



Length of pole, in feet . . 

Depth of hole, f Earth. , 

in feet 1 Rock. . 



18 


22 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


3.5 


4.0 


4.5 


5.0 


6.0 


6.5 


6.5 


3.0 


3.0 


3.5 


4.0 


4.5 


5.0 


5.0 



i 



CONSTEUCTION WORK 



37 



Holes along curves or in loose soil should be at least 6 inches 
deeper than showTi above, and should have a diameter about 
6 inches greater than that of the pole to be set. If poles must 
be set in sohd rock, it usually proves more economical to drill 
2- or 3-inch holes and use pipe for poles. 

Setting. — In setting poles they are turned so the ridge of the 
roof will be parallel ^dth the line wire, care having been taken 
to roof the crooked poles so the crooks will face the next 
pole in the line when the ridge of the roof is parallel with the 
line. AH poles in straight hues are set as nearly perpendicularly 
as possible, but in curves are given a certain amount of rake which 
is about as follows : 



10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


(See Fig. 28) 


16 


24 


33 


42 




(See Fig. 29) 



Pvdl, in feet . , 5 

Rake, in inches 10 



The pole must be braced or guyed if the rake exceeds 42 inches. 

No attempt should be made to 
adhere strictly to these figures re- 
gardless of all conditions; neither 
should they be totally disregarded. 

Tamping. — Some heavy iron in- 
strument, such as a crowbar, hav- 
ing a beveled point will be found 
preferable for this use to one 
having a broad, flat -tamping sur- 
face. Fine dirt should be vrell 





Fig. 28. 



Fig. 29. 



tamped about the base of the pole first, and care must be 
taken to see that it is firmly packed on aU sides of the poles. 
Alternate fiUing and tamping of coarser material then follow 
tiU the hole is filled. After this has been done, dirt is tamped 
about the pole above the. ground level, and serves as a water- 
shed which will drain surface water away from rather than 



38 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

allow it to seep down about the base of the pole. Such a water- 
shed should be not less than 6 inches high at the pole, and 
should extend outward from the pole to a distance somewhat 
past the edges of the hole. 

Methods of Strengthening. — It not infrequently happens that 
poles may be of such material or may be so placed that in them- 
selves they are not of sufficient strength to withstand the strain 
imposed upon them by the line wire, and in such instances it 
of course becomes necessary to re-enforce them in such a manner 
that efficiency of the fine will not be impaired. 

Guys. — These are of twisted wire and are usually cheaper 
than braces. They consist of at least two wires (of the. same 
gauge as the line wire) twisted together and are of a length 
sufficient to reach from the bracket to a point on the ground at 
a distance from the pole equal to the pole's height above ground. 
See Fig. 30. An anchor block, or " dead man," is buried at a 
depth of 3 feet, which allows the eye of an ordinary anchor rod 
to extend above the surface of the ground. After the upper 
end of the guy wire has been made fast to the pole by two turns 
about it just below the bracket and twisted not less than six 
times about itself, the lower end is brought to the anchor rod 
by means of the Buffalo grips, which regulate the tension, and 
is then passed through the eye and back on and twisted about 
itseK in not fewer than six turns. 

Braces. — Brace poles should have a minimum butt diameter 
of 8 inches. They should be set at least 2>}4 feet below the 
surface of the ground, against a solid bottom, and at a point 
from the pole equal in distance to one-half the pole's length. 
See Fig. 31. When so set the upper end should strike the polo 
three-fourths of the way up. Hewing, for the purpose of mak- 
ing a tight joint where the brace strikes the pole, should always 
be done on the brace and never on the pole. A ^-inch gal- 
vanized bolt is passed through both timbers just above the 
lower edge of the braces and serves to hold the two together. 

Use of Guys and Braces. — These are used on the first and last 
poles of a line, at approaches to crossings, at the ends of spans 
from 300 to 500 feet long, and on poles set in very steep hillsides 
or along curves where the pull exceeds 30 feet. They may be 
used at other points as circumstances demand. 

Re-enforcements. — Poles may be re-enforced as shown in Fig. 
32. This method of bracing is used when conditions prohibit 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



39 



the use of guys or braces or when poles have become weakened 
through decay. Stubs should be of cedar, although other dur- 



Wrappii^S 




Fig. 30. — Guy for telephone pole. 





Fig. .31. — Brace for telephone pole. 



Fig. .32. — -Re-enforcement 
with stub. 



able woods may be used when this is not available, and should 
have the following approximate dimensions: 

Length of pole, in feet 18 22 2.5 30 

Length of stub, in feet 9 9 9.5 10 

Top diameter of stub, in inches 7 7 S 8.5 

They should be set as deep as the pole and on the side where 
line strain will tend to pull the pole toward rather than away 
from them. 



40 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



Methods of construction are explained in the figure. 
Stubs — These are used where a guy crosses a road or trail 
and are shown in Fig. 33. They are guyed the same as a pole. 

LAYING WIRE 




Fig. 33. 



-Stub for telephone 
pole. 



No more wire than can be hung in one day should be 
laid out at one time. It should be cut at points where the 

hne is to cross a road, trail, or 
other path of travel and the 
loose ends should be fastened 
back out of the way. Unless this 
is done the wire should be sus- 
pended in such a manner that 
vehicles or travelers may pass 
beneath it without difficulty. 
Care must be taken to see that all 
short kinks are either straightened 
or cut out and the wire spliced 
before it is stretched, this being especially true of hard drawn 
copper wire. Deep nicks, stretches of rust, and all other espe- 
cially weak spots should be cut out, but at the same time care 
must be taken to keep the number of sphces at a minimum if 
efficient service of the hne is to be secured. 

The coil of wire to be laid out should be placed on the reel 
in such a way that the loose end will run from the outside and 
a few rounds should be run off in order to ascertain definitely 
whether this end of the wire has been loosened. If the topog- 
raphy and travel faciHties of the country permit, the reel may 
then be placed in the rear of a wagon and hauled over the right- 
of-way after the loose end has been tied to some stationary 
object. Otherwise two men may carry the reel and lay out 
the wire after the same manner. If neither of these methods 
is practicable then the reel may be firmly set and the wire laid 
out with a horse. This can be done by tying a 12- or 14-foot 
rope to the end of the wire and " dallying " the other end at 
the saddle horn. The practice of looping the wire itself about 
the horn is one to be avoided; in case of accident the wire can 
not be released in time to avert injury either to the horse or 
the rider. 

Animals not trained to pull under the saddle may be worked 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



41 



in harness, the wire being looped into the center cHp of a single 
tree and laid out quickly and easily. It is always advisable, 
however, for one man to remain at the reel to see that no tan- 
gles occur as the wire is run off. It invariably happens that 
without some means of regulating the speed at which the reel 
revolves several turns of wire are thrown off at once and the 
consequent tangle necessitates numerous spHces or else total 
loss of all the turns so tangled. It is also advisable, and even 
necessary, that a prearranged system of signals be agreed upon 
by the man at the reel and the one paying out the wire. 

Care must be taken, also, to see that the w^ire is laid on the 
proper side of poles if extra work in the way of replacing or 
cutting and splicing is to be avoided. 

After the wire has been laid it may be hung over the brackets, 
ready for stretching and tying, by means of either a slender 
pole, to the ends of which a horseshoe has been attached so that 
when the pole is erect the heels wiU point upward, or by using 
a long slender forked pole. 



CLIMBING 

The cHmbers or hooks are strapped securely to the legs just 
below the knees and again at the ankles with the loose ends 
of the straps projecting to the rear as shown in Fig. 34. The 
safety belt is buckled about the waist 
comfortably tight and all the tools to 
be used in tying or otherwise working 
on the wire at the insulator are placed 
in their respective loops. One end of 
the safety strap is snapped into the ring 
at the left side of the belt and the 
other is allowed to hang loose until 
the climber reaches the desired height 
on the pole. This is usually when the 
chin is about on a level with the insu- 
lator if tying is to be done. In using 
the hooks no attempt should be made to 

grip the pole with the knees, as this wiU force the hooks out of 
the wood and cause the chmber to shde suddenly down ward. ^ 
The knees must be bent outward away from the pole and care 




Fig. 34. — Method of 
attaching climbers or 
"hooks" to the legs 
and feet. 



^ Known in the lineman's vernacular as "burning the pole." 



42 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



must be taken to fix each hook firmly into the pole before an- 
other step is attempted. This is done by a sharp, vigorous 
thrust with the foot directed diagonally downward at the pole. 
The body is kept well away from the pole and parallel with it 
from the waist up. Crooked or leaning poles are chmbed on 
the upper side of the crook. When the desired height has been 
reached both hooks are struck into the pole at about the same 
level and the pole is securely grasped with the right hand and 
arm. The safety strap is passed around the pole with the left 
hand and caught with the fingers of the right. The left hand 
and arm then grasp the pole, and the safety strap is hooked into 
the right side of the belt with the right hand. The lineman 
then settles his weight backward against the belt and down 
ward on the hooks, keeping his body rigid and well away from 
the pole. In this position he is able to make a tie without 
difficulty. 

POLE STEPS 
These are used in poles over 35 feet in length. Beginning 
at a point 6 feet above the ground they are set alternately along 




Fig. 35.- 



-Horseshoe tie for iron 
wire. 




Fig. 36. — Figure : 
iron wire. 



tie for 



opposite sides of a pole and are spaced 3 feet apart, making 
steps 18 inches high. As a general rule they are screwed into 
the pole before the latter is raised. The most convenient method 
of inserting them is to start holes ^/le-inch less in diameter than 
the screws. They may then be screwed or driven in without 
difficulty. If they are to be used in large trees they should be 
placed at about right angles to each other rather than on exactly 
opposite sides of the tree. 



CONSTRUCTION ■ WORK 



43 



TIES 

Horseshoe. — This tie is illustrated in Fig. 35. It is the most 
common tie used, and is especially convenient in rural and sec- 
ondary lines. The tie whe is of the same gauge as the Hne wire 
and is cut 10 inches long. Each end is given not less than three 




Fig. 37. — Figure 8 tie for hard-drawn copper wire. 




close turns about the hne whe and the projecting ends are then 
chpped off short in order to avoid weakened transmission as the 
result of " leakage." Such ties are for use on iron wire and are 
not adapted to tying hard-drawn copper wire. 

Figure 8. — The wire for this tie is also of the same gauge as 
that of the line whe, but is cut from 24 to 30 inches long. When 
used on iron wire, it is constructed as 
sho^n in Fig. 36, but if hard-drawn 
copper wire is to be tied it is made 
as shown in Fig. 37. 

A variation of this tie is shown in 
Fig. 38, but is not used as extensively 
as either of the preceding ones. How- 
ever, it may be used to good advan- 
tage in tying hard -drawn copper 
wire, and in such a case the ends are 
disposed of as shown in Fig. 37. 
The tie wire is cut 18 inches long. 

Swinging.— These ties are con- 
structed as shown in Fig. 39 and 
are for use in hnes hung from swing- 
ing insulators. They are attached 

to the hne wire not nearer than 6 inches to the insulator and 
are cut about 20 inches long. 




Fig, 



r22Z^ 



38. — Tie for iron wire. 
(Seldom used.) 



SAG 
This term has reference to the distance below the hori- 
zontal to which a hne wire should reach at or near the center of 
the span. The table of sag necessary to allow for galvanized 



44 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

iron wire, hard-drawn copper wire, and for lines hung on trees, 
will be found on page 355, Appendix. The object of sag is to 
permit regulation of the tension of the wire during hot or cold 




I 



Fig. 39. — Swinging insulator 



weather. In no case should it be less than that given in the 
table. 

SPLICES 

In Galvanized Iron Wire. — If a sphce is to give the best ser- 
vice it must be as tight as possible and projecting ends must be 
cut away close up. Otherwise the transmitting efficiency of the 
line will be weakened through " leakage " and communication 



1 



-4^^^^ 



Hook. 



Western Electric joint. For iron wire. 




Hard-drawn copper wire spliced by use of 

sleeve. 

Fig. 40. — Splices. 



will be greatly impaired. The process followed in construct- 
ing a spUce for this variety of wire is illustrated in Fig. 40, and 
is known as the " Western Electric " joint. The wire ends are 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



45 



run through the connectors from opposite sides and are then 
given five turns about each other. Another method is to use 
two pairs of connectors and turn them in opposite directions 
or else hold one stationary and turn the other. 

In Hard-Drawn Copper Wire. — SpHces in this wire are made 
as shown in Fig. 40. The wire ends are inserted in the sleeves 
from opposite sides and ends and are then given not less than 





For hard-drawTi copper wire. 




For iron wire. 
Fig. 41. — Dead ends. 



three nor more than four turns. The projecting ends, which 
should not exceed 1 inch in length, are turned back upon them- 
selves. The sleeves should not be used in making sphces in 
galvanized iron wire, as corrosion will result and weaken the wire. 
The Hook Splice. — This sphce, also shown in Fig. 40, is the 
very poorest sort of makeshift and should not be used under 



46 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



any circumstances. . Two or three of them in a hne will so 
weaken the transmitting powers as to render communication 
almost impossible. 

DEAD-ENDS 

These are used at the terminals of lines, on poles next to 
railway or underground crossings, and at the junctions of switch 
lines with main hnes. They are constructed as shown in Fig. 
41. If hard-drawn copper wire is to be dead-ended the method 
is the same as shown in Fig. 41, where a half-length sleeve is 
given one and one-half turns. 

APPROACHES AND CROSSINGS 

Forest Service hnes approaching other lines for the purpose oi 
crossing them are dead-ended at either side. This is especially 
important if the crossing span is to be very 
long, in which case it is also dead-ended a 
connected to the main line as shown in Fig. 42' 
Such crossings are to be over other lines, unless 
the latter will be kept in good repair, and noi 
allowed to fall across the Forest Service line 
Power-transmission hnes or electric-hght lines 
are crossed underground, the nearest poles 
being set not less than 150 feet from them 
These crossings should be taken up ir 
detail with the proper office and specific instruC' 
tions obtained as to the proper method oi 
construction. 

Spans crossing railroads must be suspended 
from poles set far enough back from the track so they will no: 
reach it in case they fall. Ordinarily they should be bracec 
or guyed from a direction that will prevent them from falling 
toward the track. The line wire is dead-ended at either side 
and two insulators are used, as shown in Fig. 42. 

Spans crossing wagon roads must be suspended at a height 
that will permit the passage of traffic beneath them. 

AU approaches to crossings are at right angles to the line or 
road to be crossed; unless the ends of the crossing spans are 
dead-ended they are tied with the figure 8 tie; and if the spans 
are to be 500 feet or more in length, specific instructions as to 
the proper method of crossing should be obtained. 




Fig. 42. — Dead- 
ends at crossing. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



47 



CONNECTIONS 

Branch lines connecting with Forest Service lines are dead- 
ended on a separate insulator. They are left long enough to 
supply the connection wire, as shown in Fig. 43, and this 

is given at least seven turns 
about the main line if gal- 
vanized iron wire is used. 
Hard - drawn copper - wire 
connections are made as 
shown in Fig. 44. 





Fig. 43.- 



-Branch-line connection. 
Iron wire. 



Fig. 41. — Branch-iiue 

conuection. 

Hard-drawn copper wire. 



LIGHTNING RODS 

These are of the same gauge wire as the hne wire and are 
attached to the poles before the latter are set. They are cut 33^ 
feet longer than the pole to which they are to be stapled and a 
6-inch length is allowed to project beyond the upper end, or past 
the ridge of the pole roof. This is then bent back and twisted 
about itseK, leaving a 3-inch extension above the pole. The 
extra 3-foot length is coiled or wound about in the shape of a 
clock spring and is stapled to the squared-off butt of the pole. The 
wire is then stapled along the pole one-quarter of the way around 
from the insulator. It must not be allowed to come in contact 
with the hne \\dre or grounding -wiU be the result. Ordinaril}' 
one should be attached to every tenth pole, but if the line follows 
a route which is greatl}'' exposed to atmospheric disturbances 
one should be supphed at every fifth pole. 



48 HANDBOOK FOK RANGEKS " AND WOODSMEN 

OTHER LINES 

Forest Service lines hung on the same poles with other lines 
should be fastened at least 2 feet above the latter. They should 
never under any circumstances be hung on poles carrying power 
lines or other wires heavily charged with electricity. 

TREE LINES 

Where trees are used in lieu of poles the Une is hung to them 
by means of swinging insulators, as shown in Fig. 39. These con- 
sist of two duplicate pieces of porcelain which when properly 
fitted together resemble an ordinary ''spool" or "knob" insulator, 
except that the groove passes around the center instead of at one 
end. Each piece is fitted with a shallow hole at one corner and 
with a short tenon at the corner diagonally opposite. These 
prevent lateral displacement of the halves. Each half is also fitted 
with a semicircular, well-glazed, lengthwise groove through which 
the line wire passes when the halves are fastened together. After 
they have been fastened about the line wire they are suspended 
from long tie wires in such a way that they may swing to a dis- 
tance of from 8 to 24 inches, farther if necessary. They were orig- 
inally designed as a means of allowing the wire to slide through 
its support and not be broken by the swaying of the tree. How- ^ 
ever, the Une wire seldom slides through them, but finally causes 
the tie wire to break at or near the tree as the result of con-^ 
tinuous bending backward and forward. This trouble may be ■ 
overcome by attaching a wire ring to the tree and fastening 
the tie wire into it. This ring may be made by twisting a piece 
of wire about a hammer- or hatchet-handle. Another objection 
to the use of such insulators is the fact that when the line wire 
does sUde through them it becomes worn at that point and 
finally breaks. It is assumed that when they are used, trees 
falUng across the line will not break it, but that the sag from 
several spans will accumulate at that place and allow the wire 
to be borne to the ground. This is exactly what occurs if the 
line is properly hung. Such lines are tied at about every seventh 
pole or tree by being fastened to an insulator on a bracket 
These ties are of No. 12 gauge wire instead of No. 9, the differ- 
ence in gauge allowing the tie wire to break before the line wi 
does. The same gauge is also used in tying every third swing 
ing irsulator. Other ties are of No. 18 gauge seizing strand, 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 49 



TELEPHONES 

Ohms Resistance of Ringer Coils. — The standard telephone 
used by the Forest Service is of 2,500 ohms resistance, but when 
Forest Service lines are connected with other Hnes the ringer 
coils in both the telephones and extension bells should have 
the same resistance as those on the line connected with. In 
some instances it may therefore be necessary to use instruments 
having 1,600 ohm ringers. 

Protection. — The protector adopted as standard by the Forest 
Service is known as No. 60-E and is used where there is no 
exposure to liigh-tension circuits, such as power or electric-light 
lines. If exposure to Ughtning is especially great a No. 47-A 
Hne fuse is used in addition to the No. 60-E protector, but should 
be so placed that the wire nearest the line may fall away when 
the fuse is blo'WTi. 

The same combination protection is used where there may 
be exposure to Hnes of high-tension voltage except in cases where 
the voltage may exceed 1,800. In that event specific instruc- 
tions are to be obtained as to what method of protection should 
be used. 

INSTALLATION! 

Dead-Ending the Line Wire. — The dead-end bracket should 
be attached to the side of the building at a point as near the 
proposed location of the telephone as possible. In attaching 
the line wire to the dead-end insulator it is left long enough after 
dead-ending to be bent back on itseK for a distance of at least 
2 feet and is then run down to and connected with the fuse as 
sho^Ti in Fig. 45. The fuse should be suspended at a point 
low enough to allow easy access to it when replacement becomes 
necessary. 

Connection of Fuse with Set. — This connection is shown at 1 
in Fig. 45 and should be of No. 14 Brown & Sharp gauge wire 
weather-proofed. The insulator shown at 2 is the regular No. 
4K porcelain knob attached to the wall with a No. 18, 3-inch, 
flat-headed iron screw. The tie wire should be insulated. 

1 For installation of sets on metallic circuits, wiring, and installa- 
tion of outside sets, and other information, see Forest Service manual, 
"Instructions for the Building and Maintenance of Telephone Lines 
on the National Forests." 



50 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



Drip Loops. — These are made as shown at 3 and are provided 
in order that water may not follow along the wire into the tube, 
shown at 4, Such loops should be at least 2 inches deep. 

Tubes. — These are also of porcelain and are of different 
lengths and diameters. They are used as conveyances for wires 
which are to be passed through walls and they also act as extra 
insulation for such wires. In outside walls they should be set 
with the inner end higher than the outer end. This prevents 
^ water from following along 
the wire into the building. 
They may be set horizontally 
in interior walls. 

Connections at Protector. 
—Usually the protector is 
attached to the inside of the 
wall at a point directly over 
the telephone. The line wire 
connects at the upper side 
and the line terminal in the 
set connects at the lower side. 
Connections in the Set.— 
As a general rule aU tele- 
phone sets come ready wired 
and the terminals in the ones 
used by the Forest Service 
are lettered " Line 1 " and " Line 2," The Hne wire is con- 
nected with the former and the ground wire with the latter. 

Ground Rods. — The standard ground rod used by the Forest 
Service is a ^-inch iron rod 5 feet long fitted with a copper wire 
for connection with the ground wire of the set. When possible 
to do so this rod should be driven its fall length into the gTOund. 
At any rate, it must be driven to moist earth if good grounding is 
secured. It need not necessarily be driven immediately next to 
the building but may be set at a point several rods away. If 
the character of the ground is such that no suitable place can be 
found for the ground rod, a 50-foot length of wire may be closely 
coiled and buried at a depth which will insure its contact with 
permanently moist earth. One end of this wire is then connected 
with the ground wire of the set. The hole in which the wire ia 
buried should be filled with charcoal or very fine dirt. 

Joints and Splices. — All joints and splices, both inside and 




Fig. 45. 



CONSTRUCTION WOHK 



51 



outside of the telephone, should be wrapped with tape, except 
those at the terminals in the set. If this is done they need not 
be soldered. 

Connection of Batteries. — Ordinarily all telephones are fitted 
with dry batteries which are connected with each other, as 
shown in Fig. 46. They are connected before being placed in 




Fig. 46. — Connection of batteries. 

the box. If the latter is wide enough to accommodate three 
batteries this number should be used in preference to two. 

To Test Dry Batteries. — The easiest method of ascertaining 
whether or not a battery is exhausted or ''dead" is to press the 
heel of a knife-blade firmly against the binding post at the edge 
of the battery and the point of the blade against that portion 
of the battery in which the other binding post is fastened. If 
the portion touched with the point of the blade "fries," sparkles, 
or smokes the battery is stih "ahve." If ^,he apphcation of the 
knife-blade has no perceptible effect on it, then the battery is too 
weak to give good service and should be replaced with a new 
one. Another effective test is to place the binding posts of one 
battery against opposite posts of another. A spark will i-esult 
if the batteries are alive. 

TELEPHONE TROUBLES 

The following "troubles" occur most frequently and as a 
general rule may be immediately remedied by making the nec- 
essary repairs or adjustments: 

(1) Rings and communication received but not transmitted: 
Loose connections or broken wires in batteries or transmitter or 
both. 

(2) Rings not received: Broken wires or loose connections 
in ringer or improper adjustment of clapper between bells. 

' (3) Rings transmitter! but not received: Loose connections 



52 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

or broken wires at connection of line wire with set, ground rod 
or protector, contact of Una with trees, or other grounding agents. 

(4) Crank turns hard and rings are inaudible and not trans- 
mitted: Usually due to crossed wires. 

(5) Crank turns easily, rings audible but not transmitted: 
Broken or poor ground connections, loose connections of outside 
with inside wiring, broken line wire, poor connection at terminals 
or protector. 

(6) Indistinct transmission and receiving: Loose connections, 
improper joints or splices, worn-out batteries, or faulty grounding. 

(7) Difficult ringing, transmission, and receiving: Poor 
joints, faulty ground, fine wire of too light a gauge, too many 
telephones on the fine, too many receivers down, contact of Hne 
with trees, branches, or poles. 

(8) Good transmission, poor receiving: Loose connection or 
broken wires in induction coil or receiver hook, broken wires in 
receiver or receive cord, damaged or dusty diaphragm. 

(9) No transmission or receiving: Broken or disconnected 
line wire, crossed or broken wires in the set, no ground connec- 
tion, improper terminal connections. 

(10) Intermittent transmission and receiving: Loose line 
connections, intermittent contact of Une wire with grounding 
■agents. 

DAMAGE TO OR DESTRUCTION OF 
TELEPHONE LINES 

Section 60 of the Act of March 4, 1909, as quoted on page 31, 
U. B., 1915, provides as follows: 

" Whoever shall willfully or maliciously injure or destroy any 
of the works, property, or material of any telegraph, telephone, 
or cable line or system, operated or controlled by the United 
States, whether constructed or in process of construction, or 
shall willfully or maliciously interfere in any way with the work- 
ing or use of any such line or system, or shall willfully or mali- 
ciously obstruct, hinder, or delay the transmission of any com- 
munication over any such hne or system, shall be fined not 
more than $1,000 or imprisoned not more than three years, 
or both." 

TRAILS 

Local conditions so completely govern the work of trail con- 
struction as to make a set of definite rules impracticable, but 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 53 

nevertheless certain general rules can always be followed with 
nlore or less success, and it is felt that a few suggestions concern- 
ing the actual work in the field will not be out of place.i 

Purpose. — Trails are constructed in National Forests for three 
general purposes, viz.: (1) Transportation facihties; (2) travel 
facihties; (3) protection facihties. The first is constructed 
between points where more or less traffic in the shape of supphes 
and other commodities passes in transportation by pack-animals. 
Such a trail would correspond to a class A trail as designated 
in the Forest Service and would usually follow some natural fine 
of travel, such as a main valley, where eventually it could be 
widened into a road with httle further expense. It would have 
a maximum grade of 15% with a standard grade of 6%. The 
second would be constructed chiefly as a means of access from 
one secondary point to others, would not exceed a 20% grade, 
maximum, with a standard grade of 12%, would not be built 
in anticipation of its future reconstruction as a road, and would 
correspond to what is known in the Forest Service as a class B 
trail. 

A trail leading to some isolated point not of sufficient impor- 
tance to justify heavy expenditures in trail construction or to 
demand frequent visits or quick access would be a class C trail, 
and might have a grade as much in excess of 20% as could be 
negotiated by pack- or saddle-animals, the standard grade, 
however, being 18%. 

All trails, in addition to facihtating transportation and travel, 
may also serve as means of fire protection by providing stretches 
of ground free from inflammable material. 

Preliminary Survey. — The three features of greatest impor- 
tance in the preHminary survey for a trail are: (1) Directness 
of route; (2) uniformity of grade; and (3) cost of construction 
as compared with the economic value of the completed trail. 
Obviously the adoption of an indirect route between termini 
when a more direct and just as good a route is possible cannot 
be justified, nor are numerous and unnecessary descents justifi- 
able when ascent is the objective. Cost estimates must be held 
to a limit compatible with the importance of the trail, i. e., ex- 

^See Trail Manual, 1913, Preliminary Draft, by F. A. Silcox, 
District Forester, District No. 1. See also the manual. Trail Con- 
struction on the National Forests, 1915, 



54 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

penditures sufficient for construction of a class A trail should 
not be contemplated in construction of a trail to be of minor 
importance when completed. On the other hand, however, 
proper construction of a trail intended to be used chiefly for 
transportation purposes should not be neglected to an extent 
that will leave the trail in no better concUtion when completed 
than a class B or C trail. Cost of construction is necessarily 
determined by the nature of the route to be covered, the amount 
of blasting and grading to be done, the number and sizes of 
bridges, culverts, drain ditches, retaming walls, and switchbacks 
reqmi'ed and the amount of swamping to be done. It also 
includes the cost of the preliminary sm-vey, which, under ordinary 
conditions, should not exceed 5% of the entire cost of actual 
construction. 

Locating the Route. — In most instances where a trail must 
cross hilly or mountainous country the work of locating the 
route should begin at the high points and proceed down-hill, 
this method of operation facilitating advance observations and 
obviating extra work often incident to up-hill surveys. The 
i:)reliminary route or routes should be marked only at points 
sufficient to indicate the line for possible future reference in the 
final survey, blazes being very light and not cut through the 
bark, and stakes being small and only temporary in . nature. 
Later, after aU trail lines have been run and the final survey 
has been made, this should be marked plainly with blazes cut 
through the bark or with strong durable stakes set firmly in the 
ground at freq\ient intervals. 

Such blazes or stakes may be scribed or otherwise marked 
with any information the construction crew may require for 
proper grading or other work, care being taken of course to see 
that the foreman will readily understand what is meant by 
certain locations of or data on stakes or blazes. 

Grade. — To determine the grade of a trail between objec- 
tive points the rise, or difference in elevation, between those 
points is divided by the corresponding length of trail minus 
the total length of the level stretches it may cover. Thus, 
letting R represent the rise, T the length of trail, L the tota.l 
length of levels, and G the per cent of grade, the formula for 
such a calculation would be 

R -r 



I CONSTRUCTION WOEK 55 

j .. , 

Therefore, assuming that a trail 3^ mile, or 2,640 feet, in length 
ascends 375 feet and covers levels aggregating 140 feet in length, 
the per cent of the grade is found thus: 

375 

2,640-140"^^^^- 

Clearing. — Trees, brush, and saplings should be cut out to a 
distance far enough back on either side of the trail to allow un- 
interrupted progress of pack- and saddle-animals. Limbs over- 
hanging the trail should be removed till at least an 8-foot vertical 
clearance is secured. These should not be merely "bobbed" 
or "dehorned" so that long stubs are left projecting toward the 
trail, but should be cut away close up to the tree trunk. Stumps 
growing along the lower edge of a side-hill trail frequently may 
be utilized as braces in retaining walls of minor importance but 
should not be reHed upon to form parts of heavy walls that can 
be repaired only with difficulty. If they are to be left along 
other portions of the trail they should be cut low enough to 
allow plenty of room for stirrups to pass above them. Large 
trees growing directly in, the route chosen for the trail to follow 
should, in all ordinary circumstances, be passed around rather 
than felled. If they are feUed the stumps must be either passed 
around anyhow or else grubbed out, and in this case there always 
arises the question whether or not grubbing is more economical 
than deviation of the trail. 

Large roots or small stumps uncovered in grading and left 
projecting above ground or from the uppar bank should be cut 
out in such a way that remaining portions caimot possibly inter- 
fere with travel. 

Disposal of Debris. — A fixed rule in the Forest Service is 
either to burn aU refuse resulting from clearing and grading or 
else pile it and have it ready for burning at a later date if cir- 
cumstances prohibit burning at the time the trail is constructed. 

GRADING 

- Blasting. — ^A discussion of this subject will be found on pages 
74 to 85, inclusive. 

Tools Required. — The number of tools required in building 
a trail depends upon the number of men to be employed and 
the nature of the ground to be worked over, and about the only 



56 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

general rule that can be followed in outfitting a crew is to see 
that each man is provided with at least one tool. In addition 
to such a list it is also well to supply at least one extra tool, or 
accessories, of each variety to be used most and which will be 
most liable to damage. This is especially true of handles if 
suitable material for improvised handles cannot be secured along 
the trail. 

Plows. — Only in rare cases can trail grading be done by means 
of teams. 

Occasionally, however, one horse, hitched to a hght plow, 
can be used to advantage in breaking ground which can later 
be raked or shoveled out or placed as desired. The most suitable 
plow for such work is what is known in the South, and, in fact, 
in most other sections, as a "bull tongue" or .''Georgia stock," 
and which consists merely of a straight beam frame carrying a 
straight leg fitted with a 4-inch steel shovel from 8 to 16 inches 
long. A lighter variation of the bull tongue is known as the 
''caK tongue," which is only about 2 inches wide and which is 
designed for use on a bent leg. Another suitable form of shovel 
for such a frame is known as a "twister." This is about 6 inches 
wide by 12 long and bears a 3- or 4-inch wing which serves the 
same purpose as the mo\ild board on a turning plow. The wing 
may be either right or left turning. 

The best 2-horse turning plow for trail work is what is com- 
monly known as a "side-hill " or " hillside " plow. The land- 
side and mould board are so constructed that either may be 
used as the other simply by reversing their positions. They 
are released by raising a lock that holds them in position for 
plowing and can easily be turned by allowing the team to tip 
the plow as the turn is made for cutting the next furrow. The 
lock is fastened before the furrow is started. Constructed in 
this manner, the plow may be used to throw dirt down-hill in 
plowing in either direction along the trail. 

If a side-hill plow is not available, then an Oliver chiUed No. 13 
turning plow is recommended. This will cut a clean 8-inch 
strip without difficulty, is light, and can be easily handled on. 
steep hillsides, and will be found preferable to heavier plows 
cutting wider furrows. It is especially suitable for work in 
ground full of stones and roots. The share fastens to the frog 
with only one bolt, and this is threaded in such a way that the 
tap must be turned to the left to be tightened. Being threaded 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 57 

in this manner the tap is tightened rather than loosened if it 
accidentally shdes along on rough ground. Another advantage 
of this plow is that when dull, the share, being chilled, may be 
sharpened by chipping it with a hammer, the blows being 
directed against the edge in line with the upper surface, thus 
breaking the chips from the upper side and beveUng the share 
so it will feed into rather than out of the ground. If the chips 
are knocked from the under side of the share the bevel will be 
reversed and the plow will jump or feed upward. The share 
cannot be heated and beaten out to a thin edge. 

Another form of 2-horse plow very suitable for rough work, 
and especially effective in breaking out roots and small boulders, 
is known as a ''coulter." It consists simply of a pointed steel 
leg, square, round, or shaped like a knife-blade, thrust through the 
beam and used in breaking gTOund. It is designed only for break- 
ing hard or rough gi'ound and cannot be used in moving dirt. . 

In using any form of plow in ground where roots or stones 
may be encountered frequently the plowman must exercise great 
care in avoiding broken root ends as they snap back from the 
plow. Carelessness in this respect may result in severe injuries 
to or even fractm-es of the legs. He should also walk behind 
rather than between the handles, since these are often forced 
suddenly sidewise or upward or do^vnward as the plow-point 
strikes stones or slips over or under roots, and at such times 
may inflict painful or even dangerous injuries on the body. He 
should also remember that a bull tongue, twister, or coulter is 
so constructed that it is lowered into the ground by downward 
pressure on the handles and is released by raising the handles, 
while a turning plow, being fitted with a long point, landside, and 
share, can be forced into the ground wdth much less difficulty 
if the handles are gradually forced shghtly upward or toward 
the side on which the landside works, which, in a regulation 
turning plow is to the plowman's left. The plow can be released 
quickly and easily by sudden downward pressure on the handles 
or by turning the plow sidewise and downward on the share 
side. The latter operation can be performed without difficulty 
by seizing the left handle with both hands and thrusting the 
plow to the right. 

The lateral direction and the depth to which a turning plow 
may be made to run in rough ground is regulated to a certain 
extent by means of the double clevis fitted to the end of the 



58 HANDBOOK FOR .RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

beam and supplied as a means of attachment for the double 
tree. This is known as an ''end clevis" or a "plow clevis." 
On steel-beam plows the part attached to the beam is in two 
pieces, one piece fitting to each side of the beam. For a wooden 
beam it is made in one piece and to fit over the end of the beam. 
At the forward and perpendicular end a number of holes, one 
below the other, provide means for attaching that part of the 
clevis wliich fastens to the double tree, and it is by means of 
these holes that depth is gauged. Hitching into the lowest 
hole serves to raise the point of the jjIow and thus permits 
shallow plowing, while hitching into the upper hole forces the 
point downward and allows deeper plowing. Intermediate 
depths are provided for by the other holes. Lateral direction 
may be gauged by attaching the double tree to the horizontal 
part of the end clevis. Hitching into the hole farthest to the 
left forces the plow to the right and causes it to "cut narrow." 
Using the hole farthest to the right makes the plow ''take to 
land " and cut wide, or "cut and cover," this term applying 
to work in which a narrow strip of uncut ground is left between 
furrows and covered over with fresh dirt. 

In making the turn at the end of a furrow preparatory to cut- 
ting the next furrow, a turning plow should not be slid along on 
the edge of the share. If it must be shd at all it should either 
be slid on the heel of the landside, which is made extra heavy 
for this use, or else thrown completely over on its left side and 
dragged. Dragged in this manner it is always in such a position 
that it may be easily set upright by seizing the upper or right 
handle with the right hand and raising the other handle to the 
left hand. 

A bull tongue, twister, or coulter, having no long horizontal 
point, share, or landside, may be turned about on the point as 
on a pivot. 

In turning any plow sufficient downward pressure should be 
apphed to the handles to raise the end of the beam to a point 
where it will hold the double and single trees high enough to 
prevent the animals from stepping over or entangling .hem- 
selves in the traces. Turning may also be facilitated by tipping 
the beam away from the team after it has been raised. 

Weights placed on a turning plow to assist in holding it in 
rough ground should be attached near the end of the beam 
rather than over the leg. When they are placed on bull tongues 



I 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 59 

twisters, or coulters they should be fastened immediately over 
the leg. 

Plowing in very rough ground will be found much easier if 
one man drives while the other holds the plow\ The driver 
should keep his animals under complete control, should hold 
them to a slov/, steady walk, avoid exciting them, and before 
startmg them again should give them ample time in which to 
regain their footing and equihbrium after the plow has been 
brought to a standstill by contact with a root or boulder. The 
sudden violent jars transmitted to the animals when the plow 
suddenly strikes a stationary object is not only severely painful 
and nerve-WTacking, but may even so irritate a team that proper 
management is a difficult matter. It is therefore imperative 
that the collars fit properly, that all parts of the harness are 
substantial and properly adjusted, and that careful horseman- 
ship be observed in all respects. Excited or irritated animals 
should b* given a complete rest w^hile the driver and plowman 
turn their attention to other lines of work, such as removing 
roots, stones, or brush. 

Graders. — Trails are so seldom constructed in country where 
graders can be used that these implements w^ill not be discussed 
here. 

Picks. — Common "railroad " picks, weighing about five or six 
pounds, fitted wdth 34-inch handles, and costing from fifty cents 
to a dollar each, including cost of the handle, will be found very 
effective in loosening dirt, but cannot be used to advantage in 
removing it. Care should be taken to supply several extra 
handles for the crew, many members of w^hich are often found 
to exercise httle or no judgment in then- use of a tool or tools. 
Handles cost from fifteen to tw^enty-five cents. 

Mattocks. — These should have 16-inch blades with 6- or 
8-inch axes and should never be used in extremely hard or 
stony ground. They are designed primarily for dirt-moving 
rather than loosening. They w^eigh and cost about the same 
as picks. 

They will be found especially suitable for grubbing out roots, 
cutting brush beneath the gi'ound sm^ace, and taking out roots 
and stumps along the bank. 

Combined Picks and Mattocks. — As their name indicates, 
these are so constructed as to provide a pick and mattock in 
one tool, and if Umited funds demand strict economy in the 



60 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



purchase of tools their use is recommended in preference either 
to picks or mattocks. They can be used with equal success as 
either, are strong and durable, and weigh and cost about the 
same as picks. 



Railroad pick. 



Mattock. 




Combined pick and mattock. 



Pick or mattock handle. 



Grubbing hoe handle. 



Planter's hoe handle. 
Fig. 47. 



Grubbing Hoes. — A heavy grubbing hoe may also be used 
effectively in cutting roots and brush and moving loose material. 
They are heavier and more durable than mattocks and can be 
used to better advantage in hard or stony ground. They 
should weigh not less than three and one-half pounds, should 
be of forged steel, fitted with an adze eye and a 36-inch bent 
handle, and should cut 33^ inches. Their cost, including that 
of the handle, is about the same as that of a pick. 

A light variety, having a thinner but much wider blade, and 
known variously as "planter's," ''cotton," ''hazel," and "eye" 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



61 



hoe, made for use on a 4-, 5-, or 6-foot handle, will be found very 
effective for cutting grass roots and fine brush or in leveling 





Grubbing. 



Fig. 48. — Hoes. 



Planter's. 



uneven ground. They cost somewhat less than the heavier 
grubbing hoes. 

Shovels.— Shoveh for general use should be fitted with long 
handles and should not exceed five pounds in weight. Blades 





Socket shank. 




D-handled shovel. 

(Socket shank.) 

Fig. 49. — Long-handled shovels 



Strap shank. 



should be about 9 by 12 inches in size and should bear socket 
shanks in preference to strap shanks, new handles being fitted 
in the former with much less difficulty than in the latter. The 
cost is shghtly more than for strap shanks, but such shovels 
prove much more economical in the long run. The cost varies 
from sixty-five cents to ^1.25. 



62 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



At least one short D-handled shovel should be provided each 
crew for work in close quarters where a long handle cannot be 
used to advantage, such as in work about stumps or boulders 
or along ditches and banks. It weighs somewhat less than the 
long-handled variety, but the size and cost are about the same. 
A socket shank is recommended. 

Pinch Bars. — These implements, if fitted with wedge points, 
are known as "crow" bars, but if beveled only on one side of 
the point have "pinch" points and are known as "pinch" bars. 
The pinch point renders them more effective than a wedge point 
in forcing them under and prying up heavy boulders, and they 



Crowbar. 



Pinch bar. 
Fig. 50. 



will be found more generally satisfactory than crowbars. They 
should be 5 or 53^ feet long and should weigh about twenty 
pounds. The cost varies from seventy-five cents to $1.25. 

Rakes. — These will be found very useful in leveUng the tread 
and in removing gravel and fine brush from the trail. Asphalt 
rakes, which have extra long shanks fitted into heavy handles, 
will be found most suitable for rough trail work. They weigh 
approximately four pounds and cost from fifty cents to one 
dollar. 

Axes. — A description of the best axes for general trail work 
wiU be found on page 170. 

Bush Hooks. — These should be about 12 inches long over all, 
should have 2-inch blades and 6-inch 
cutting edges, and should be made to 
attach to regulation bush snathes. 
They will be found very effective for 
use in cutting out tangles of briars, 
dense thickets, and other growths not 
easily reached with the ax. Made of 
a good quality of tempered, steel, they 
weigh about one pound and cost from fifty cents to one 
dollar. 




Fig. 51. — ^Bush hook. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 63 

Brush Forks. — Ordinary hay forks, or " pitch " forks, will 
prove very satisfactory in removing or piling fine brush, such 
as brambles, sage brush, buck brush, and small seedlings. 
They should have 5-foot handles, three 12-inch tines, and sub- 
stantial ferrules fitted over the sockets. They weigh about 
three pounds and cost from fifty cents to one dollar. 




Fig. 52.— Brush fork. 

Use of Picks, Mattocks, and Other Tools. — About the first 
request made of a new man in any large construction gang 
employed in grading work where men must work close abreast 
of each other is to refrain from swinging the tool he is using, 
and thereby avoid the possibHity of inflicting injuries on his 
fellow workmen. Picks, mattocks, grubbing hoes, axes, sledges, 
and all other tools ordinarily swung to one side in using, must, 
in crow^ded work, be raised straight up and dropped without 
any swing whatever. The practice of dehvering a long, violent, 
swinging blow at hard or stony earth is to be avoided at any 
time. It is not only wearing on the workman, but in the majority 
of cases does not prove more effective than shorter and lighter 
blows. Such tools are not made for work that requires them 
to be used with such force, and if the foreman allow^s his men to 
use them in a manner not provided for in their construction he 
will soon find his repair biU out of aU proportion to other expenses. 

In average hard ground the workman will find that from 
twelve to fifteen blows per minute with a pick, mattock, or hoe 
wiU constitute a reasonable rate of speed in labor for him to 
maintain throughout an eight-hour day. 

Shovels should not be thrust violently against boulders or 
into extremely hard ground, nor should they be used as a pinch 
bar or pick. They are not intended for such use, are not built 
to withstand such treatment, and may be quite easily battered, 
bent, or broken. 



64 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

The easiest method of using them is to rest the lower hand 
against the upper side of the corresponding thigh as the knee is 
shghtly bent, bring the other hand close in against the right 
hip, and thrust them into loose dirt by inchning the body side- 
wise and slightly forward. This reUeves the back and arms of 
unnecessary strain by providing a fulcrum, through the medium 
of the thigh first mentioned, against which the loaded shovel 
may be operated. 

A workman of average strength and endurance shoveling in 
this manner can remove on an average of ten shovelfuls per 
minute and throw or scatter the dirt to a distance of from 6 to 
12 feet. If the dirt must be thrown upward to about the same 
distance the rate must be lowered to about eight or nine shovel- 
fuls per minute. 

Care of Tools. — Each man should be required to take his tool 
or tools into camp with him at the end of the day's work and 
to see that they are in proper repair for use the next day, this 
rule not applying, of course, to plows and scrapers if these are 
used. 

One man should also be detailed to carry in the extra tools, 
his own tools being taken care of by one of the other men if the 
extras are so numerous or heavy as to make this arrangement 
desirable. By following such a plan of caring for his tools the 
foreman or Forest officer in charge will suffer fewer losses through 
theft, carelessness, and forgetfulness than if the tools are not 
so taken care of. 

A grindstone, whetstone, files, and a portable forge should be 
supphed for sharpening purposes. The first two may be used 
in sharpening axes, bush hooks, and other keen-edged tools; 
blunt-edged tools may be filed; and the forge may be used in 
heating picks, drills, and other tempered tools for sharpening. 

A plow to be left unused for considerable periods should never 
be left sticking in the ground, nor should it be removed and 
carelessly thrown on its side in such a position that men or 
animals may accidentally injure themselves on the point, the 
heel of the share, or the ends of the handles. It should be set 
up squarely and securely and all exposed cutting or turning 
portions should be weU smeared with wagon-grease to prevent 
rusting. This precaution often obviates the necessity for 
preliminary plowing through sand or gravel before the plow will 
"scour." All taps used on it, especially the one that secures the 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 65 

share to the frog of an Ohver chilled plow, should be kept tight 
and not allowed to work loose. Single and double trees when 
not in use should be laid near the plow or kept attached to it. 

The brush fork, v/hen not in use, should be set securely on 
the tine points, and in such a place that in then' work men or 
animals will not accidentally displace it, and thus provide pos- 
sible means of injury to themselves. 

Rakes should either be set away in a safe place or laid teeth 
downward where men and animals need not pass over them 
in going about their regular work. 

Bed. — The. larger, coarser Stones removed in grading and not 
needed in retaining walls are thrown into the bed fu'st and are 
firmly settled and packed with loose dirt before fiUing progresses 
further. Smaller stones, coming from farther up on the bank, 
are then throT^-n in and likewise settled. By using this material 
at such a time it is not only removed from a point from which it 
might otherwise shde into the trail, but it is also utilized m mak- 
ing a substantial bed. Finally, all loose material is removed 
from the upper side and used to complete the bed and provide 
capping. Care must be taken to see that brush, stumps, and 
old logs are not made a part of the bed. If burif '^ in the bed 
they will soon rot and leave the bed full of "sink" holes or 
otherwise in bad condition. 

Retaining Walls. — Instances may occur where the nature of 
the ground to be worked over is such that stone for retaining 
walls cannot be secured from cuts or grades, but m.ust be ob- 




FiG. 53. — Cross sec- 
tion of trail showing 
construction of retaining walls. 

tained elsewhere. In that event the man in charge must deter- 
mine whether or not such material can be procured and put in 
place with less expense than would be required in grading out an 
extra wide bed which would require no retaining walls. 

In any case, however, retaining walls should be of stone and 
should be constructed in a manner similar to that sho-^Ti in 
Fig. 53. 



66 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

The larger, heavier stones are placed on a firm foundation 
along the lower side of the trail, the Ughter stones being used 
to complete the upper portions of the walls. 

Walls should be drawn in shghtly toward the trail as they 
are completed, and larger stones from the grade are then drawn 
down against them. They are thus built up with the bed in 
such a way that long stones may be used in tying them securely 
together, thereby allowing each to brace the other. Loose dirt 
is thrown in as the walls are built up, and is not, as may be 
supposed, kept till the last and then used as a cap. 

Retaining walls may also be required along the upper side of 
a trail constructed through loose slides of broken rock. 

Logs and brush should not be used for wall material unless 
it is absolutelj^ impossible to secure stone. They are subject to 
decay and to destruction by fire, and their use invariably resnlts 
in increased cost of maintenance. 

Switchbacks. — These are short zigzag lengths of trail provided 
as a means of maintaining as nearly as possible a uniform grade 
up steep slopes and long sloping ridges known as " hog-backs," 
serving much the same purpose as landings in a flight of stairs 
where horizontal distance is so Hmited that uniform continua- 
tion of the flight in the same direction is impossible. They 
should be made as flat as possible in the turn, which should have 
a minimum width of 4 feet, and which should be protected by a 
log or a guard-rail so placed as to prevent short cuts across the 
turn by pack- or saddle-animals. The practice of building them 
around trees or high stumps is to be avoided. Under ordinary 
conditions their frequent use is unnecessary if proper care has 
been taken in determining the grade at which the trail is to 
ascend. Their construction materially increases the total cost 
of a trail and their presence renders travel more difficult than 
when a uniform grade is maintained. 

Bridges and Culverts. — Since their construction adds materi- 
ally to the first cost of trail construction and subsequent cost of 
its maintenance, these are to be avoided when possible. Deep 
canons may be crossed by dropping the trail to the stream at 
a point suitable for a ford and ascending the opposite bank, 
thus doing away with the need of a bridge. 

However, if a bridge must be built, care must be taken to see 
that it is erected on a substantial foundation that water will 
not weaken or remove. If the field man understands masonry, 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



67 



and proper material and sufficient funds are available, he should 
b}^ all means construct the piers and abutments either of stone 
or concrete. (For Concrete Construction, see pages 99 to 105, 
inclusive.) 

Less permanent, though very reUable, piers and abutments 
may be made by laying up triangular log pens, pinning or other- 
wise locking the corners securely together, and filling the pens 
with loose rock or heavy boulders. Corner pins may be of iron 
or wood, but if the latter is used it should be of some tough 
variety, such as seasoned hickory or oak, that will not decay 
quickly. Pier pens should be placed in such a position with 
reference to the stream flow that the current may act directly 
against a corner rather than fuU against one side. 

Bridges not to exceed 20 or 24 feet may be constructed as 
shown in Fig. 54. Over this length and of complicated design 





Fig. 54. — Short bridge. 



Fig. 55. — ^Method of guying 
bridge "rafters." 
(End elevation.) 




Fig. 56. — Log Bridge. 



their construction should be left to an experienced bridge builder 
and will not be discussed here. Side braces or ''rafters" may 
be tied together, as shown in Fig. 55, the tie being far enough 
above the floor, of course, to aUow the free passage of vehi'^les 
beneath it. 

Bridges to be built across permanent streams having long 
sloping banks may be constructed as shown in Fig. 56. None 
of the logs should be less than 10 inches in diameter at the small 



68 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

end and all should be perfectly sound. Abutments should have 
substantial rock foundations that water will not undermine or 
wash out and the logs should be notched into each other pref- 
erably in the same manner in which house logs are notched. 
See Fig. 85. The sides flare outward toward the rear, and when 
filled with rock and earth serve as approaches. If the sides 
next the stream are gradually drawn in as the top is reached 
there will be much less danger of their collapsing if the founda- 
tions are disturbed. 

Culverts should always be of stone when such material is 
available and may be constructed as shown in Fig. 57. Other 



^ ^^aoad^Bed^;^ ^ 




Box. 



stone. 




Solid 
Earth 



Corduroy over bog. 

Fig. 57. — Culverts. 



forms of culverts, only temporary in nature, are of poles, boxes, 
or hollow logs, and are also illustrated in the same figure. Poles 
of seasoned aspen or quaking asp {Populus tremuloides) , or any 
of the cedars or junipers having a top diameter of not less than 
8 inches, will be found quite durable, but most of the pines may 
be used in cases of emergency. Such structures are usually 
only for temporary use and do not justify heavy expenditures 
for material. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 69 

If circumstances prohibit the use of poles a very good sub- 
stitute may be had by the use of puncheons. These are merely 
portions of spht logs laid fiat side upward and used in lieu of 
planks or heavy timbers. They should be notched till they 
fit securely against the stringers. 

Box culverts should be of seasoned white oak (Quercus alba) 
or creosoted pine, and should be not less than 8 by 12 inches in- 
side, thus requiring the use of four 2 by 12s. A stronger box 
will be the result if the top, or floor, plank is nailed to the upper 
edges of the side planks. It is also advisable, especially when 
a poor grade of lumber must be used, to cut in at least two 
2x4s crosswise of the box and under those portions of the 
floor plank which wiU be subjected to the greatest pressure. 
Set edgewise under the floor, these will reduce the net inside 
dimensions to 8 by 8 inches, but this size wiU be found sufficiently 
large to carry any ordinary amount of drainage. If an unusually 
large amount of drainage is to be carried, then six 2 by 12s should 
be used and a box 12 by 20 inches made. Such a culvert, of 
course, requires crosspieces under the floor planks, but in a box, 
say 6 feet long, three 2 by 4s laid flatwise wiU be of sufficient 
strength to support aU ordinary traffic. 

Laid in this manner, the crosspieces reduce the net inside 
dimensions to 10 by 20 instead of only 8 by 20 inches. 

Hollow log culverts of sycamore or buttonwood {Platanus 
occidentalis) and black gum or tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) are widely 
used in the South and Southeast, being placed not only in trails 
but in many of the country roads as weU. The material is quite 
durable, and such culverts often remain in good repair for ten 
or fifteen years or more. However, this timber is not available 
in most parts of the West. 

Corrugated iron piping, or terra cotta tihng used for culverts, 
should be at least 8 inches in diameter inside. The most widely 
used size is only 6 inches, but such pipes clog too easily to prove 
satisfactory for culverts. 

Corduroy. — This is a form of artificial bed provided as a 
means of crossing bog-holes in a trail, and is also one form of 
construction used in culverts or small bridges of minor impor- 
tance. Used across bogs, it consists merely of numerous small 
logs or large poles laid crosswise of the trail and capped usually 
with dirt or gravel. For deep bogs it may be made more sub- 
stantial by first placing heavy logs, even 12 or 16 inches in 



70 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

diameter, at the bottom, lighter logs being laid at right angles 
across these. If necessary a third tier is placed at right angles 
across the second. 

Frequently only two or three stringer logs will be found nec- 
essary for the foundation, corduroy being placed on these to 
serve as a bed. Ordinarily, if capping is to be from 4 to 8 
inches thick, no other fastenings will be required to hold the 
corduroy in place. If necessary, however, it may be pinned 
to the stringers with wooden pins or toe-nailed with 60-D 
spikes. 

Drain Ditches. — Ditches of adequate size to prevent the tread 
being flooded should be provided at aU points along import.ant 
trails where flooding is likely to occur. They may be cut into 
the bank above or into the ground alongside the trail, or, in 
case only a limited amount of drainage is to be carried, may 
be cut directly against the upper side of the trail. 

If drainage is to be conveyed across the trail, side ditches 
should be continued to points suitable as locations for culverts 
or water bars, the latter being merely logs of sufficient length 
and size to direct the flow across the trail after they have been 
set into the ground diagonally to the Hne of travel. 

Proper drainage is absolutely essential to economical main- 
tenance of a trail, and carelessness in construction in this re- 
spect may later prove responsible for complete abandonment 
of the trail. Continued travel tends to settle and otherwise 
displace the capping material until, if proper drainage facihties 
have not been provided, water flows directly down the middle 
of the tread and soon cuts an impassable ditch. ^ 

Tread. — The tread of a trail is that portion of it which is 
exposed to travel, and upon its width depends the greater por- 
tion of the cost of construction and maintenance. Its proper 
consideration in the preliminary survey is, therefore, of the 
greatest importance and must be given close attention. 

In any trail, regardless of its classification, per cent of grade, 
or any other particularly important characteristic, costs in con- 
struction and maintenance wiU be materially reduced if the 

^ In all parts of the country, and especially in the rural districts 
or in sparsely settled regions, mil be found roads' and trails which 
have been " set over " time after time as each new route has been 
allowed to wash out and become impassable, the final result being a 
series of parallel ditches none of which can be used as a path of travel. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 71 

width of the tread is kept at a minimum, this point in construc- 
tion applying with equal force to trails in classes A, B, and C. 

Quite naturally it would seem to the inexperienced trail- 
builder that a class A trail, which might have a uniform grade 
as low as 6 per cent, and which eventually might be recon- 
structed into an unusually good wagon road, should have an 
extra wide tread. The micre fact, however, that it has the low 
grade is sufficient justification for a narrow tread, because the 
disadvantages of a narrow tread are offset by the low grade; 
and as for being rebuilt as a road, he should remember that the 
way is a trail first and may possibly be a road later. 

The maximum tread seldom need exceed 3 feet, and except 
in short switchbacks can usually be much less. The minimum 
for trails of little importance should be about 15 inches. 

Capping. — This term refers to the material used on the sur- 
face of a trail or road and is kno-WTi in many locafities as the 
" crown," " top," or " top dressing." It should be hard and 
compact, free from large stones, and of a nature that prevents 
its ready removal by traffic. 

For instance: Very dry adobe forms a fine dust which may 
be kicked or blowTi from the trail in large quantities. When 
thoroughly wet it forms a stiff mud, through which progress 
can be made only with the greatest difficulty, and holes or ruts 
made by pack- or saddle-animals do not fill in but remain as 
such, and after the adobe begins to dry out present a surface 
even more difficult to travel than one full of large stones. Ob- 
viously, such material is unfit for capping. Loam is but little 
better — as, in fact, are most other loose soils, the yellow clay 
common to the South and Southeast being especially unsatis- 
factory in wet weather. 

The best capping is of coarse sand or fine gravel, disintegrated 
granite being exceptionally suitable. Crushed rock, slag, and 
cinders are also good, and sawdust or rotten wood can be used 
to good advantage over permanently wet stretches of trail. 

Whatever material is used for capping should be thick enough 
to present a substantial surface for travel and should be graded 
enough higher in the center than at the sides to allow ample 
slope for drainage of all rain or snow that may fall upon it. 

Blazes. — The standard blaze used by the Forest Service in 
marking trails is not lessr than 8 inches long, is cut through the 
bark into the sapwood, and is accompanied by a horizontal 



72 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

notch cut directly above it. These blazes are made in trees 
growing at such points along a trail that at least one blaze is 
always visible to the traveler as he proceeds in either direction. 
Ordinarily trees along both sides of a completed trail are blazed 
both fore and aft; but if limited time for construction renders 
such blazing impractical, they are often blazed on one side only 
and in such a manner that in proceeding along the trail in either 
direction the traveler always observes the blazes to his right. 
Later, other blazes are made as required. 

The foreman or officer in charge of construction should see 
that large, ragged, unsightly blazes are avoided. Where a trail 
crosses open country with httle or no grading, he should also see 
that its course is plainly marked either by means of rock monu- 
ments or by guide-posts and boards. Intersecting or branch 
trails should be indicated by guide-boards showing directions 
and distances to important points. Specifications for such 
boards will be furnished field men upon application to the 
proper office. 

ROCK DRILLING 

Effective rock drilling is possible only when properly sharp- 
ened and tempered drills are used. However, volumes might 
be written on the subjects of sharpening and tempering steel, 
and still the inexperienced person would not secure sufficiently 
definite information to justify him in attempting the operations. 
Therefore, they will not be discussed here. It is suggested, how- 
ever, that where considerable drilHng must be done the field 
officer in charge of the work should secure the services of a man 
famihar with the work of sharpening and tempering. Even, if 
such a person demands a higher rate of pay than other members 
of the crew, his services will prove proportionately more valuable. 

Single Jacking. — This method of drilhng is employed when 
shallow holes are to be bored. One man performs both opera- 
tions of holding and striking the drill and otherwise sees that 
the hole is properly sunk. A single jack should not weigh more 
than three and one-half or four pounds. 

Double Jacking. — Two men are employed in this work, one 
holding the drill in position while the other strikes it with a 
sledge known as a '' double jack," and which usually weighs 
from six to twelve pounds or, in some instances, more. In order 
to get the best results, either man should be experienced both 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 73 

in holding and in striking the di^ill. Such men, however, are 
not always available, and it may be found necessary on such 
occasions to teach certain members of the crew how these 
operations are performed. 

The one who is to hold the drill should seat himself in such 
a manner as to bring the di'ill between his knees, where, by the 
use of both hands, he can hold it in the required position. It 
need not be gripped more tightly than is necessary to hold it in 
position unless it is of such Ught material that blows from the 
double jack produce violent lateral vibrations in it. In such a 
case a tighter grip is necessary in order to avoid the severe 
jars which otherwise result to the hands. 

Immediately after a blow has been dehvered, and while the 
double jack is being raised for another, the drill should be raised 
sHghtly, turned part way around, and then settled back against 
the bottom of the bore-hole. If it has been unevenly dressed 
or, instead of being turned on the center, is merely moved at one 
corner of the bit, a triangular rather than a round hole will be 
the result, and cutting will be retarded as the result of extra 
labor imposed upon the striker in cutting the three corners. 
Ordinarily, such holes are the result of an attempt by the man 
holding the drill to avoid the labor incident to raising, turning, 
and setthng the driU, but the advantages gained in this respect 
are more than offset by the striker's extra labor. 

By turning the drill after each blow of the double jack the 
edge of the bit is brought diagonally across the last groove cut 
and the shoulders of this are chipped away, thus facilitating 
sinking. 

The man holding the di-ill should keep his hat-brim pulled 
well down over his eyes, should keep his face turned downward, 
and should never watch the drill-head. Blows from the double 
jack may cause this to sliver or sphnter, and fragments of steel 
are often thrown off as if shot from a gun. The striker, how- 
ever, whose face and hands are above the drill-head, is not sub- 
jected to this danger and should watch the driH-head continu- 
ously. This permits him to observe any sudden change of the 
drill's location and to manage the double jack accordingly. 

If for any reason the drill sticks or hangs and can not be 
turned between blows of the double jack, the man holding it 
should make this fact known to the striker immediately. Mean- 
while he should not attempt to loosen the drill by moving or 



74 HANDBOOK FOE KANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

shaking it about in the. bore-hole until he has assured himself 
that the striker knows he must stop striking. This is usually 
done with the interjection " Mud! " which all experienced drillers 
understand to mean that operations are to be temporarily 
suspended. 

Water poured into the bore-hole will not only serve to prevent 
the drill bit from heating, but will also facihtate cutting. The 
man holding the drill may protect himself from spattering by 
placing an old grain sack loosely about the drill at the top of 
the bore-hole. 

Chum Drilling. — ^This operation is performed by means of a 
long drill, used, in most cases, by two men and heavy enough 
to obviate the necessity for using a sledge. It is simply raised 
and then forced violently against the bottom of the bore-hole, 
cutting the same as if driven with a sledge. It is especially 
convenient in drilling into upright faces of rock. 

Removing the Cuttings. — Cuttings are removed from the bore- 
hole with a long, slender tool known as a " spoon." However, 
if no spoon is available the cuttings may be '' swabbed out " by 
means of a stick, preferably of some hard, tough wood, beaten 
into splinters at one end. This end is thrust into the cuttings 
and twisted about till the brush is filled. After removing it 
from the bore-hole the stick is rapped sharply against the diill 
or a stone, and is thus reUeved of the cuttings. 

BLASTING 

The construction of permanent improvements, such as roads, 
trails, and telephone lines, often requires the use of explosives, 
and unless the new field man has had previous experience in 
their use he should place a competent man in charge of blast- 
ing operations until such time as he himself may have become 
sufficiently famihar with the work to carry it on with a mini- 
mum possibihty of accidents. 

The two chief forms of explosives used in general field work 
are dynamite and blasting powder, but since the latter is used 
less frequently than the former it will not be discussed here. 
Electric firing of blasts is seldom practised except in ditching 
through loose dry dirt or gravel and occasionally in controlling 
severe forest fires. The inexperienced man is seldom required 
to handle such work, however, and for that reason only cap- 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 75 

and fuse-firing will be considered. If electric firing must be 
done, the field man should consult some reliable authority on 
the subject.! 

Dynamite. — Com-positioii. — This is composed ol nitro-glycerin 
mixed with sawdust, nitrate of soda, and other explosive or 
absorbent ingredients, and is packed into cyhndrical paper shells 
forming what are known as " sticks " or " cartridges." These 
are 8 inches long and of different diameters, the standard diam- 
eter, however, being 13^ inches. They are shipped in cases of 
twenty-five and fifty pounds. 

Strength. — The strength of d>Tiamite is expressed in per cent, 
according to the strength of the explosive regardless of the 
per cent of nitro-glycerin present, and is kno^Ti as " 20%," 
'^ 30%," or whatever the strength may be. Straight dynamite 
is made in strengths from 20% to 60%, gelatin from 35% to 
75%, and blasting gelatin 100% only. 

Use of Different Strengths. — The required strength of d>Tia- 
mite for different uses may be determined about as follows: 
For sheU rock, hard clay, frozen earth, log sphtting, ditching, 
grading, or other fight work, 20%, 25%, 30%, or possibly 40%; 
for quarry use where stone is to be spfit but not shattered, 30%, 
33%, and 40%; for stumps, tree-felHng, ice, and medium hard 
stone, 40% and 50%; and for extremely hard stone, or iron or 
steel, 60% straight or 75% gelatin. 

Blasting powder, aside from the greater inconvenience en- 
countered in using it, is hardly strong enough in satisfactorily 
small quantities to produce the desired results when used in the 
work just mentioned. It may be used to convenience, however, 
when logs are to be spht into comparatively regular sections, 
such as for cordwood, corral timbers, rails, and posts. Blasting 
powder for such work should be of FF, FFF, or FFFF granu- 
lation. 

Caps. — These are small metal tubes closed at one end and de- 
signed for the purpose of detonating dynamite. The closed end 
carries a small quantity of fulminate of mercury, which explodes 
by ignition, the concussion thus produced detonating the dyna- 



^ See "The Farmer's Handbook," published by the E. I. du Pont de 
Nemours Powder Company, Wihnington, Delaware. 

See also "Handbook of Mining Details," pubhshed by IMcGraw- 
Hill Book Company, 239 West 39th St., New York, N. Y. 



76 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

niite. They are classed as No. 6, No. 7, or No. 8, according to 
the amount of fulminate of mercury they carry. 

Fuse. — This is flexible tape-, cotton-, hemp-, or jute-covered 
tubing carrying powder used to convey a flame to the fulminate 
charge in the cap. The different grades are: Plain hemp for 
very dry work; single tape for damp work; double tape for 
wet work; and triple-tape or gutta-percha covered for use in 
water. It comes in double rolls each 50 feet long, one fitting 
closely inside the other. Ordinarily it burns at the rate of about 
2 feet per minute, but if much abraded or if under pressure, as in 
a tightly tamped bore-hole, the rate of burning will be increased 
and may even reach 4 feet per minute. It should be stored 
in a cool, diy place where it will neither become dry and brittle 
nor have the varnish melted off. 

Preparing the Charge. — Attaching the Cap to the Fuse. — ^The 
required length of fuse, long enough to allow the shot-firer to 
retire to a safe distance after the fuse has been Ughted and be- 
fore the charge explodes, is cut squarely off from the roll. An 
inch or two should be cut from the end of the roll first and dis- 
carded, as the fuse is constructed of such material that 
the exposed end always attracts moisture. If in cutting 
the fuse from the roll the fuse end is flattened it should 
be rolled round between the thumb and finger, care be- 
ing taken, however, to see that none of the powder is 
allowed to escape. This end is then held in a vertical 
position and the cap is fitted down over it as shown in 
Fig. 58 until the fulminate charge rests firmly against 
the end of the fuse. In doing this the cap must not be 
twisted or rotated about the fuse, as the charge is very 
sensitive and friction against it 
may result in an explosion. The 
final operation is Imown as 
" crimping " the cap, and consists 
in crimping or creasing it about 
the fuse in such a way that the 
two are held securely together. 
Fig. 58. The crimp is made near the open 

end of the cap as shown in the 
same figure. A specially designed combination crimper, fuse 
cutter, and punch is manufactured for this purpose and is used 
as shown in Fig. 59." Many blasters crimp with a piece of hard 




CONSTRUCTION WORK 



77 



sharp-edged wood, with a knife-blade, or with their teeth, but 
none of these methods should be followed unless a crimper is not 




Crimper. 



Fig. 59. 



Using the crimper. 



is a practice 



available. In any event crimping with the teeth 
to be avoided. 

Attaching the Cap to the Cartridge. — Opinions differ as to 
whether the cap should be inserted at the end or in the side 
of the cartridge. The latter method, 
however, is a much safer one by reason 
of the fact that it not only leaves the entire 
end of the cartridge exposed for tamping, 
but also provides a cushion of dynamite 
between the cap and the end of the tamp- 
ing stick. 

An opening is made in the cartridge 
by means of the round handle of the 
crimper, or, if no crimper is available, a smooth round stick of 
the required diameter may be used. Nails, wire, and small bolts 
should never be used for this purpose. When the hole has 
been completed the cap is inserted therein as shown in Fig. 60. 




Fig. 60. — Inserting cap 
in cartridge. 





Fig. 61. — -Cord about fuse. 



Fig. 62. — Tying the fuse into 
the cartridge. 



A strong heavy thread or Ught cord is then tied about the fuse 
as in Fig. 61, and finally the fuse is tied securely to the cartridge 
as sho's^^l in Fig. 62. 



78 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

If the cap is to be inserted in the end of the cartridge the 
paper wrapping is unfolded and opened at that end, the hole 
is punched and the cap inserted, and the wrapping is then 
closed and securely tied about the fuse. 

If the charge is to be placed in water or very wet earth the 
connection of the fuse and cap with the cartridge should be 
well covered with grease. This should not be of an oily nature 
or it may pass through the tape and into the filling of the fuse. 

Loading. — This operation, which is also known as " charg- 
ing," consists in placing the cartridge in the bore-hole or drill- 
hole. If several cartridges are to be used in the same hole the 
one bearing the cap, which is known as the " primer," should 
be placed next to the top or last one and pressed down firmly. 
The others must also be firmly settled into the hole, and this 
can be done much more satisfactorily if their wrappers are sht 
through lengthwise once or twice. This allows them to spread 
out and fill the hole more closely. Care must be taken to see 
that each cartridge is pressed firmly against the one before it 
and that no vacant spaces are left between them. 

Another method of loading where only one cartridge is to be 
used in a hole is to cut the cartridge in half, lower the primed 
half to the bottom of the hole, press it down firmly, and then 
tamp the broken-up remaining half in above it. Still another 
method is to lower the capped fuse into the hole till the ca]) 
is at or near the bottom and then tamp the broken-up cartridge 
about it. 

The last method is especially satisfactory where bore-holes 
are so small that cartridges can not enter readily. They should 
•never be forced into a bore-hole. The chief disadvantage of 
loading in this manner is the possibility of igniting the dyiiamite. 

Tamping. — Iron tamping rods should never be used when 
dynamite is to be tamped. The safest method of tamping is 
by means of a wooden stick cut square at the large end and of 
a diameter small enough to allow it to enter the bore-hole easily 
beside the fuse. Fine dry dirt should be used for tamping and 
should be firmly tamped as filling progresses. The first 5 to 
6 inches of dirt should be pressed down firmly but gently. After 
that greater pressure may be used with little danger, but it 
should not be greater than that made possible by hand. The 
hole should be tamped full to the surface. If plenty of grease 
has been smeared about the connection of the cap and fuse 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 79 

with the cartridge, water will also make fair tamping, but the 
charge must be fired before the water can soak into it. 

Firing. — In order to save time and facilitate operations the 
foreman should have other members of his crew remove tools 
and other equipment to a safe distance w^hile the shot-firer is 
loading and preparing the charge for firing. 

The fuse end should be spht back through the center for a 
distance of Y2 inch in order to expose the powder and allow 
the flame of the match to reach it without delay. Ignition of 
the powder will be indicated by a sudden hissing spurt of sparks 
and flame, and the shot-firer should not leave it tiU this has 
occurred. " He then warns other members of the crew of this 
fact usually by calhng, " Fire in the hole! " and immediately 
retires to a safe distance. Protection from flying debris should 
be sought behind large trees or boulders where the bore-hole 
may be watched and where an unobstructed view of falling 
earth and stone may be had. Such positions should if possible 
be selected so the sun and wind wiU be to the watchers' backs. 

Misfires. — These may occur as the result of broken, defective, 
or improperly prepared fuse, defective caps, or separation of the 
fuse and cap. They should not be investigated nor worked near 
for at least an hour after they should have exploded, and if con- 
ditions are such that they may be avoided till the next day 
the safety is so much the greater. 

The practice of " picking out " or removing an unexploded 
cartridge from a bore-hole with intent to reload and fu-e it is 
not safe, although in many instances it is more convenient to 
remove the tamping and reprime than to driU and charge a new 
hole. If the " missed " hole is shallow enough to permit the 
charge being seen when it is reached there is httle danger of an 
accident. In such a case a haK-cartridge may be primed and 
loaded in above the first charge, and both may then be exploded. 

A wise precaution to observe in loading shallow holes is to tamp 
a crumpled wad of paper down directly against the charge. If 
this is done and a misfire occurs the tamping may be picked out 
of the hole with little danger of picking into the charge. 

Holes so deep, however, that such a wad of paper could not be 
seen should not be picked, but another hole should be drilled 
at a safe distance and another charge fired. In removing the 
broken-out material a close watch should be. kept for any unex- 
ploded dynamite that was placed in the first hole. In most cases 



80 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

the detonation of the second charge will also result in the explosion 
of the first. 

Blasting Out Boulders. — One of the largest items in the cost 
of construction of roads and trails is the removal of large boulders 
from the bed. These are often of such a shape and nature as 
to prevent their removal by means of teams, bars, or sledges, and 
they must therefore be broken up with explosives. This involves 
operations that are not at first sight apparent to the novice, and 
unless he is careful to adopt the most effective measures he may 
have little better success than if he had used a sledge. 

The first important thing to do in breaking out a boulder is 
to obtain a general knowledge of its size and shape and the depth 
to which it may be imbedded. This can be done by shovehng 
away the dirt at the edges of the boulder or by probing around 
or under it with a bar. The nature of the ground in which it 
is imbedded also plays an important part in the work of its 
removal and must be carefully considered before any charges 
are placed. 

The three chief methods used in breaking out boulders follow: 

Mudcapping. — This is also known as '' blistering." A dyna- 
mite cartridge is stripped of its wrapping and is then pulverized 



Blasting Ca-p 
Dynamite - 




Fig. 63. — Mudcapping. 

and laid on top of the boulder in a compact pile. The cap is 
placed at or near the center of the charge and the whole is then 
covered with 6 or 8 inches of very damp sand or stiff, wet clay. 
This is pressed tightly down over the charge and serves as 
tamping. The method is illustrated in Fig. 63. 

Blockholing. — This method of breaking out a boulder is shown 
in Fig. 64, and is also known as " splitting." Its chief dis- 
advantage lies in the necessity for drilling one or more holes 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



81 



in the boulder, but this is more than offset by the much more 
effective results obtained. In order to concentrate the charge 
as much as possible the cartridge should be broken up and 



Tamping 
Dynamite Primer 




Fig. 64. — Blocklioling. 

tamped in about the cap. Later, if fragments too large to 
handle remain, they may be mudcapped. 

Snakeholing. — For small boulders that can be easil}^ removed 
after having been broken from their bed, this method, also known 
as " gophering," is very effective. The charge should be placed 




Fig. 65. — Snakeholing. 



directly against and at or near the exact center of the under 
side. It must be well tamped and care must be taken to see that 
it is not placed at a point where wet or soft dirt may allow the 
force to be expended downward rather than upward and against 
the boulder. See Fig. 65. (For Table of Blasting Charges, 
see page 361, Appendix.) 

Blasting Out Trees and Stumps. — The chief trouble in this 
operation usually lies either in the fact that the charge is placed 
at the bottom of a hole drilled too straight dowTi and not under 



82 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



the center of the tree or else it is placed in a hole in such a way 
that it is carried beyond or to one side of the tap root. For 
the correct location of a charge expected to affect the tap root 
directly see Fig. 66. 

Fig. 67 shows a charge improperly placed at one side of the 
center of a tree having no large tap root. The charge should 




<u.uuhjjjiimuiuimmmiJii)i 
Fig. 66. — Correct location of charge in tap root. 




Fig. 67. — Incorrect location of charge in stump 
having no tap root. 



be placed as shown in Fig. 68. Unless it is placed well down 
under the roots a "blow out " at one side of the tree will be 
the result. A charge placed too near the surface of the ground 
is shown in Fig. 69. A similarly placed charge under a stump 
only serves to split it without removing the roots from the 
ground. (See Fig. 70.) 

If a concentrated charge is desired it may be provided for 
as shown in Fig. 71, where the lower end of the bore-hole has 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



83 




Fig. OS. — Correct location of charge in stump having no tap root. 




Fig. 69. — Charge placed too near surface. 




*4^i*^:^4iife#ita .iv# Aii« 



Fig. 70. — Bore-hole too shallow. Stump spUt, but 
roots not removed. 



84 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



been enlarged or " chambered " by exploding a quarter-cartridge 
in it. Such a chamber should be allowed to cool an hour before 
the final charge is placed in it, unless fired in wet ground. 




Fig. 71. — "Chambered" or "sprung" bore-hole. 

Mistakes to be Avoided. — Allowing priming to be done in or 
near a magazine. 

Allowing stock access to explosives. 

Crimping a cap with the teeth. 

Cutting a frozen dynamite cartridge. 

Cutting fuse too short in an effort to economize. 

Disturbing the fulminate charge in a cap. 

Drilling or charging a new hole less than 2 feet from a '' missed " 
one. 

Exploding a charge before all the workmen have retired to a 
safe distance or before other explosives have been protected 
from falling debris. 

Forcing a primer into a bore-hole. 

Handling dynamite with bare hands unless immune to " dyna- 
mite headache." Use gloves. 

Immediately reloading a " chambered " bore-hole. 

Investigating a misfire in less than an hour after it should 
have exploded. 

Keeping dynamite in a blacksmith shop or near a forge. 

Leaving explosives in wet, damp, cold, unlocked places. 

" Picking out " a misfire unless the bore-hole is shallow enough 
to allow the charge to be seen as soon as it is reached. 

Removing caps from the box with a nail or wire. 

Smoking while preparing or otherwise handling explosives. 



i 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 85 

Storing explosives in or near a residence. 
Storing fuse in a hot, dry place. 
Tamping with an iron bar. 

Thawing dynamite except in a receptacle especially designed 
for that purpose. 

Transporting or storing caps with dynamite. 

Using frozen or chilled dynamite. Most of it freezes at 50° F. 

BUILDINGS 

Ordinarily, the field man is not required to construct build- 
ings of more elaborate or comphcated design than that involved 
in cabins, barns, sheds, and other buildings of a similar character. 
Otherwise expert carpenter work is secured and the field man, 
if he is engaged in the work at all, usually acts as assistant 
to the carpenter in charge. Consequently, only rudimentary 
rules of construction wiU be considered here. 

Foundations. — Properh^ constructed foundations constitute the 
most important factor in a substantially built house. Stones or 
blocks comprising foundations should not be set merely on the 
surface of the earth, but should be firmly bedded on sohd rock or 
earth, and dirt or fine stone then tamped closely about them. 
This not only provides a much firmer base on which to build, but 
also prevents water from undermining the blocks or piers. All 
points of a foimdation must be level with each other and secured 
in such a manner that the process of erection will not displace 
them. Construction proper should not begin until the foun- 
dations have been allowed to settle securely, after which, if 
necessary, the upper surfaces may be finally leveled. Block 
foundations, or foundations made of lengths of tree-trunks, 
can not be recommended for use under any building, whatever 
its size or use, and especially if it is to be of a permanent nature. 
The best materials for foundations are concrete, stone, and 
pressed brick. 

Materials. — The materials commonly used in the construc- 
tion of Forest Service buildings are lumber and logs, although 
in localities remote from such supplies stone or concrete may be 
and frequently is used. Corrugated iron roofing may also be 
used for walls as well as for roofing. As a matter of fact, how- 
ever, the average field man will seldom find it necessary to use 
other material than lumber and logs. 



80 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



Classifications. — Buildings made of the materials mentioned 
above may be classed as frame, half -frame, box, and log. The 
first have full frames of studding and joists, are usually built for 
permanency, and are so constructed as to support great weight 
in the upper portions. 

Half -frames are fitted with fewer studding and joists, may or 
may not be permanent structures, and will not support as great 
weight above as full frames. 

Box frames have a few or no studding, are ribbed, are more 
or less temporary in nature, and are seldom more than one 
story high. 

Log frames have neither studding nor ribs, may or may not 
be built for permanency, and will support heavy upper parts 
in proportion to the crushing resistance of the wall logs. 

Full Frames. — Studding in these are usually spaced at from 
18 to 24 inches. Ribs may be fitted into the studding if the 
walls are to be boxed, but braces may take the 
place of ribs if regular siding is to be used. Sills 
may be of solid timbers or they may be con- 
structed by spiking two timbers together in a V- 
)e or " hog trough " as shown in Fig. 72. 
Many carpenters insist that the vertical timber of 
a hog- trough sill should project 
downward outside of the hori- 
zontal timber in order to prevent 
water from entering the joint, 
but since this joint is protected, 
or at least should be protected, 
by the boxing or siding this point of construction is of minor 
importance. 

Floor joists or " sleepers " are spiked into hog-trough sills 
as shown at the left in Fig. 73. They are secured to soUd sills 
as shown at the right in the same figure. Studding are fastened 
to hog-trough siUs as shown in Fig. 74, this method being 
used when the walls are to be boxed. If the walls are to be 
sided then the studding are notched and set as shown at the 
right of the same figure. Corner studding for siding are set 
on the upper surface of the end sleeper, one side and one edge 
being flush with the outer side of the sleeper and sill, respec- 
tively, as shown in Fig. 75. In the same figure is also shown 
the method used in setting corner studding when the walls are 



I 




Fig. 72 



Hog-trough ' 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



87 



to be ribbed and boxed. If ribs are to be set into the studding 
rather than nailed against them, then all studding for box walls 
are set the same as for siding. Methods of attaching ribs to 
studding for boxing or for siding are shown in Fig. 76. 

To Estimate Lumber for Building. — There are so many styles 



^\ 



Sleeper 



\| Sill 




Fig. 73. — Attacliment of sleepers. 



\ 



\ 



situdai 



Studding 



Fig. 74. — Attachment of studding 

Studding 



Sleeper 



\ Sill 



Studding 



Sleeper 



\1 Sill 



Fig. 75. — Attachment of comer studding. 

and varieties of buildings that a comprehensive treatise cover- 
ing estimates on all would be almost impossible, but a general 
idea of estimates for the simplest forms of construction may be 
obtained from the following plan. It is assumed that the field 



»0 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

man is required to estimate the material required for the con- 
struction of a cabin 14 by 16 feet in size, with 8-foot walls, 
rough floor and ceiling, 12-inch eaves and overhangs, no cornice, 
one rough door, and three shutter windows. The estimate 
follows : 



Sills, Hog-Trough .... 

" Plain 

Sleepers, 2-foot spaces. 
Ribs 



4 pieces 2x6x16 64 feet 



Plates 2 

.Joists, 2-foot spaces 9 

Rafters, 2-foot spaces 18 

Sheeting, 26-inch shakes to be 

laid 21 inches to the weather, 

board fashion, twelve courses 14 

Sheeting, shingles to be laid 4 

inches to the weather, 

thirty-four courses 34 

Shakes 1300 

Shingles 4000 

Saddle board, shake roof . . . 
" shingle roof. . 

Floor 

Walls : 30 

Ceiling 14 



2x6x14, 
2 X 6 X 16 , 
2 X 6 X 14 . 
2 X 4 X 14 , 
2x4x 16, 
2x4x 16, 
2x4x 14. 



.28 
.32 
.98 
.20 
.22 
.22 
.85 



2 X 4 X 12 144 



lx4x 18, 



84 



1 X 4 X 18 204 



Gables , 
Nails. . 



none required 
2 pieces 1 x 6 x 18 18 

14 " 1x12x16 .224 

Ix 12x16 480 

1 X 12 X 16 224 

7 " Ix 12x16 112 

6 pounds 20-d 
20 " 8-d 

9 " 6-d for shakes 

7 " 3-d for shingles, 1 nail 

15 " 3-d for shingles, 2 nails 



Add one pound of 20s if hog-trough sills are used. 

Thirty-five pounds of 8s will be required if three nails are 
used at each point of contact on the boxing, floor, and ceiling, 
and also used in naihng on shakes. 

Hinges, 4 pairs, 6-inch strap, for door and shutter windows. 

Plates, which are those timbers at the top of a wall and upon 
which the rafters rest, are spiked to the upper ends of the stud- 
ding as shown in Fig. 77. Eave ribs are attached when boxing 
is to be used. Studding braces, generally used in walls to be 
sided, are fitted into the studding in three different ways as 
shown in Fig. 78. Upper joists, or " stringers," are laid on 
the plates as in Fig. 79. Rafters are set on the plates, usually 



For 
Boxing 



\ 



Studding 



Studding 



For 
Siding 



Fig. 76. — Attachment of ribs 
to studding. 



For Boxing For Si. ling 




Fig. 77. — Attachment 
of plates. 





Fig. 78.— Studding braces. 



Stringer 



Studding 



Fig. 79. — Attachment of 
stringer to plate. 





Fig. 80. 



90 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



against the joists, and spiked to both. If they are cut too 
long they will not meet at the extreme upper points but will 
gap as shown in Fig. 80. If cut too short the gap will appear at 
the under side. They may be tied with " wind " beams or " wind 
coUars " or "collar beams" as shown in Fig. 81. Fig. 82 shows 
a self-supporting roof. This method of construction prevents 




Fig. 81 




Fig. 82. — Self-supporting roof. 

the rafters from sagging and makes a very strong roof. It is 
frequently used in roofs having long rafters and is very effective 
where a large anxount of snow may remain on a roof for a con- 
siderable period. It is not a satisfactory form of roof for barns 
the upper parts of which are to be filled with hay or other feed. 
A self-supporting shed roof may be constructed as shown in 
Fig. 83. - 

This is known as a " truss " roof. Its chief disadvantage is 
the extra cost of material and labor required in its construc- 
tion. Furthermore, the presence of the lower truss beam causes 
the loss of more or less space beneath the roof. 

Half-frames. — ^This method of construction is similar to that 
used in erecting frame buildings, the only difference being in 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



91 



the number of studding and other frame timbers used. Such 
frames are used chiefly where the walls are to be boxed. 

Box Frames. — These have either no studding at all, or at the 
most only a few. Like the half-frames they are used where 




Fig. 83. — Truss roof. 




Fig. 84. — "Hog-trough" comer. 



httle or no pressure will be brought to bear on the plates. Ribs 
are used occasionally, but these are supported by and serve to 
increase the rigidity of the boxing. The four hog-trough corners 
are fii'st set up as shown in Fig. 84 and boxing is then nailed 
to the sills and plates. Ribs may be put in as soon as the 



92 



HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 




Fig. 85. — Notches for 
wall logs. 



corners are erected or they may be supplied after all the boxing 
has been attached. 

Log Frames. — Logs to be used in walls should be notched, 
preferably as shown in Fig. 85. These notches are made after 
the sides of the logs have been hewn flat from the ends back 
to a distance of from 12 to 24 inches. Such hewing brings the 
logs to the required thickness for the wall 
and leaves the corners of the building in 
a finished condition if the entire sides of 
the logs are to be hewn flat later. 
Ground logs are not fitted with notch 
No. 1, but are hewn flat on the under side 
and fitted with notch No. 2. Notch No. 
1 in the next log above fits down over 
notch No. 2 of the ground log. This proc- 
ess of fitting the logs together is followed 
on up the wall to the top log. This log, 
which is known as the ^' plate " log, 
has notch No. 1, but is not fitted with 
notch No. 2. Its entire upper surface is hewn flat and sup- 
ports the rafters. Many log buildings have the top two or 
three logs pinned through the corners to each other, but this 
is seldom necessary if the logs are notched as shown in the 
illustration. 

LAYING THE ROOF 

Cornice. — This is very commonly though erroneously referred 
to as the " cornish " or "carnish." In the very roughest forms 
of construction no cornice is attached, the lookouts and sheet- 
ing ends being left uncovered and the openings between, on the 
plates and rafters, filled with short lengths of board or left 
open as the builder prefers. A very simple and effective form of 
cornice and one that completely covers all exposed lookouts and 
sheeting ends is known as the " box " cornice. It consists of 
the " facia," which is nailed against the ends of the lookouts 
and sheeting ends, the " plencia," nailed against the lower 
edges of the lookouts, and the " frieze," nailed against the walls 
and close up under the inner edge of the plencia. Ordinarily, the 
plencia is attached first, the frieze next, and the facia last, al- 
though many carpenters prefer to follow other methods of con- 
struction. The outer or lower edge of the plencia should come 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 93 

out flush with the ends of the lookouts and the facia should be 
cut wide enough to reach from the upper edge of the sheeting 
to the lower edge of the plencia. A square " box " is recom- 
mended for aU ordinar}^ buildings, its chief advantage being the 
fact that it requires less skill in construction than a cornice hav- 
ing a perpendicular facia or a facia set at other than right angles 
to the plencia. 

Sheeting. — The work of laying sheeting begins at the outer face 
of the cornice where the first sheeting board is nailed out flush with 
the edge of the facia. As he lays succeeding courses of sheeting 
the carpenter uses the lower courses as a means of support both 
for himseK and for any extra tools or material that he may need 
close at hand. 

Each course should be nailed to every rafter it crosses and 
care must be taken to see that joints do not aU fall on the same 
rafter. Unless joints are distributed over the entire set of 
rafters a weak roof will be the result. The last course, at the 
apex or the "comb" of the roof, should be nailed securely to 
the corresponding course on the opposite side. Sheeting for 
shingles is usually of 1 by 4 lumber laid with 4-inch spaces. 
Sheeting for shakes that are to be laid " shake fashion " must 
be spaced wide enough to provide firm support for each end 
of the shakes. If shakes are to be laid shingle fashion, then of 
course sheeting is spaced the same as for shingles. 

Shingling. — ShingHng also begins at the lower edge of the 
roof. The old practice of cutting shingles for the first course 
in half in order to avoid a " humped " roof is seldom followed 
by modem carpenters. This course is simply doubled and fuU- 
length shingles are used. In order to keep the lower ends of 
the first course of shingles even, a shingle is nailed at either end 
of the roof, a smaU nail is driven up into the end of each, and 
a chalk line is then stretched from one to the other. A third 
shingle should be used at the center of a long roof. When the 
first course has been laid the end shingles are marked at a point 
where the lower ends of the next course will reach, the line is 
weU chalked, stretched tightl}^ across the lower course from one 
end mark to the other, raised, and then allowed to snap down 
against the shingles, thus leaving a distinct fine of chalk against 
which to set the next course of shingles. These should always 
cover the joints between shingles in the course below and should 
be nailed to the sheeting at a point just above where the butts 



94 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

in the next course above will fall. By nailing them in this 
manner all nail-heads are hidden and a much neater looking 
and more durable roof is the result. The last, or top, course 
of shingles on the side first covered should be sawed off flush 
with the top sheeting board on the opposite side, while those 
on the opposite side should be sawed off flush with the upper 
surfaces of the top course on the first side. 

The ^nails used in fastening the shingles to the sheeting 
should not be driven so deeply that the heads will spUt the 
shingles.^ 

Shingles Required. — The number of shingles required to cover 
a roof of given size may be obtained by either of two methods, 
viz.: (1) by ascertaining the number of squares contained in the 
surface of the roof, including eaves and " overhangs," and mul- 
tiplying this by the number of shingles required to cover one 
square; (2) by ascecrtaining the number of square feet in the 
roof and multiplying this by the number of shingles required 
for one square foot. For example: Given a 24-foot roof (plate 
measure) with 12-foot rafters, 12-inch eaves or lookouts, and 
12-inch overhangs, to find the number of shingles required. 
The two overhangs added to the plate measure make a total 
roof length of 26 feet, while the 12-inch eave makes the roof, 
or this particular half of it, 13 feet wide. This makes an area 
of 338 square feet, or 3.38 squares. The entire roof will of 
course contain twice this number of square feet. Assuming 
that the shingles average 4 inches in width and that they are 
to be laid 4 inches to the weather, it follows that nine shingles 
are required to cover a square foot or that nine hundred are 
required for a square. However, carpenters usually estimate 
that a roof of this sort requires one thousand shingles per square, 
the extra one hundred shingles being used in the double course 
at the eave or being discarded as damaged or cull. Very wide 
shingles do not make a satisfactory roof because of their ten- 
dency to swell or shrink and to buckle or spUt. 

Number of Nails for a Shingle Roof. — In all ordinary shin- 
gling not more than one nail per shingle is necessary, although 
many carpenters insist that all shingles, and especially the very 
wide ones, should be nailed near both edges. However, in single 



^A common expression among sMnglers: "When you lay shingles 
don't strike the nails a last Uck." 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 95 

nailing, the nail may be driven, for instance, near the left edge 
of the shingle and far enough above the butt to allow the butt 
of the shingle in the next course above to cover the nail-head. 
The other edge of the shingle wiU be made secure when the next 
succeeding course is laid, and the shingle will also be further 
secured by nails which pass through other shingles above. Two 
nails per shingle will of course make a much more substantial 
and weatherproof roof. The nails most widely used for sawed 
shingles are known as " No. 3 Common," and are approximately 
134 inches long. 

Shakes. — This term, typically Southern, appUes to clap 
boards spUt or hewn from timbers. Ordinarily shakes are 
made about 4 inches wide and from 18 to 36 inches long, fre- 
quently longer if to be used in special construction, such as 
for walls or for harrow roofs where one course will cover the 
raftets. They may be laid the same as shingles, but as a gen- 
eral rule are laid in " board fashion," ^. e., laid in double courses 
in such a way as to break joints and at the same time overlap 
the next lower course by from 2 to 4 inches. When laid in this 
manner the butts are held even by means of a straight edge tacked 
to the course below. As each course is finished the straight 
edge is removed and then tacked to the last course laid. The 
method of naihng shakes in board fashion differs from that 
followed in laying them shingle fashion. In the first course a pair 
of shakes, or " boards," is laid side by side on the sheeting and 
a third board is laid on top of and parallel with these in such 
a way that the joint between the lower boards falls immediatelj' 
beneath it. A nail is then driven through a lower corner of 
the top board, through the board beneath it and into the sheet- 
ing. The nail driven through the opposite corner secures the 
other board of the pair. The next board is laid beside one of 
the pair and a second board is placed over the joint and be- 
side the top board first laid, nailing to be done after the manner 
just described. The upper ends are left unnailed for the time 
being, but are finally fastened to the sheeting when the next 
course above is laid. By naihng them in this manner, where 
nails passing through the com'se above also pass thi'ough the 
upper ends of the course below, considerable time is saved and 
the number of nails required is much less than when each board 
is nailed separately. In view of the extra thickness of most 
boards, however, it is often found necessary to use much larger 



96 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

nails than are required for sawed or cut shingles and in very 
thick or rough boards it may even be necessary to use 8ds. 
Occasionally, if twisted or warped boards are being laid, it may 
also be found necessary to use extra nails at the other 
corners. 

Shakes Required. — ^Estimates for shake roofs, shakes to be 
laid " shingle fashion," are the same as for shingle roofs. If the 
shakes are to be laid " board fashion," then a different method 
of estimating must be followed. Assuming that the shakes are 
32 inches long and that they are to be laid 28 inches to the 
weather, the 13-foot rafters will carry about four and one-half 
courses, or, as is usually estimated, five whole courses. If the 
shakes average 4 inches in width, then each course in a 26-foot 
roof will contain seventy-eight shakes, but since the shakes are to 
be laid " board fashion " each course must be doubled. This 
requires one hundred and fifty-six shakes for each of thfe ten 
courses necessary to cover the entire roof. 

Number of Nails for a Shake Roof. — If shakes are to be laid 
shingle fashion the same number of hails must be used as for 
a shingle roof. If they are to be laid board fashion two nails 
will be required for each shake in the top tier of each course, 
and in addition thereto an extra row of nails will be required 
at the comb. The number of nails required for such a roof 
will therefore be equal to the number of shakes used, plus the 
extra number required at the comb. Ordinarily 6-penny com- 
mons can be used, although it may be found necessary to use 
8-penny commons in extra thick or rough shakes. 

Saddle Boards. — This completes the roof, and consists of two 
boards nailed together hog-trough fashion and extending the 
entire length of the roof along the comb. It provides an in- 
verted V-shaped covering at the comb, and not only serves to 
hold the last course of shingles more securely, but also prevents 
the entrance of rain and snow. It should be nailed securely 
through the shingles and into the sheeting. 

A saddle board is seldom used on a shake roof. As a means 
of protection against snow and rain the last course of boards 
laid on the side first covered is sawed off flush with the oppo- 
site sheeting board, while the last course on the opposite side 
is not sawed off but is allowed to project upward over the sawed- 
off ends of the corresponding course on the first side. This is 
a very common form of roof throughout the South. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 97 



LAYING THE FLOOR 

Ordinarily the roof is first completed in order to provide shelter 
for workmen during the completion of a building in bad weather, 
and after this comes the laying of the floor, which will present 
an even and substantial surface upon which to work while the 
door and window casings and other parts are being made and 
fitted. 

Unmatched Flooring. — This is plain, dressed or undressed 
planks, but if properly laid makes a tight and comparatively 
even floor. In nailing it to the sleepers the nails must be driven 
directly through it and into the sleepers, and all nail-heads should 
be weU sunk beneath the surface of the planks if a smooth floor 
is desired. Crooked planks should be drawn close up against 
adjoining planks by beginning at one end and naihng to suc- 
cessive sleepers as the planks are forced over. If planks are 
so crooked or warped that they cannot be forced sidewise, then 
they may be ripped or planed straight, or, if crooks make even 
this procedure impractical, they may be sawed half-way through, 
and thus weakened until they can be bent. Care must be taken 
in such sawing, however, to see that the point of sawing will 
fall on a sleeper. Unseasoned flooring should not be used 
unless battens are placed beneath the joints. At least two 
nails should be used in each sleeper. 

Matched Flooring. — Planks in matched flooring are fitted 
with a tongue at one edge and with a groove at the other, thus 
providing for a closed joint between them. The nails used in 
fastening down the floor should be of a small-headed variety, 
such as casing nails, and should be driven diagonally through the 
planks immediately at the rear of the tongue, care being taken 
not to bruise or batter the shoulder above the tongue. Nailed 
in this manner the groove of one plank covers the nail-head in 
the one beside it, and no nail-heads protrude above the surface 
of the finished floor. No nail is required on the side next to 
the groove, the tongue of the adjoining plank being suflSciently 
strong to serve the purpose of a nail. 

WALLS 

The rules suggested for laying floors apply equally well to 
walls, except that when boxing is used it is customarily set ver- 
tically rather than horizontally, like siding, and battens are nailed 



98 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



\ Siding 



to the outside.^ Matched or " drop " siding, to be attached 
horizon tally to studding or boxing, bears a tongue at either 
edge, but these are diagonally opposite each other, thus allowing 
the lower of one plank to fall outside the upper of the one below. 
Such a manner of construction presents a shingle effect which 
prevents the entrance of rain or snow. 

Plain siding, or " shiplap," made thicker at one edge than at 
the other, is laid shingle fashion against the studding or boxing 

with the thin edge up. Most 
carpenters allow the lower edge 
to cover the upper edge of the 
plank below with a lap of about 
}/^ inch. The work of attach- 
ing such siding must of course 
begin at the bottom of the wall. 
Water Board. — This may also 
be known as a '' water shed." 
It is placed at the bottom of a 
wall which is to be sided and 
is nailed directly against the sill. 
It is designed primarily as a 
protection to the sill, but also 
tends to give a building a much 
neater and more fuUy completed 
appearance if a box cornice 
is used and completed with a 
frieze. Water boards are seldom used on walls to be boxed. 
Fig. 86 shows an end view of such a board. 

Door and Window Casings and Other Inside Work. — The 
proper construction and fitting of door and window casings and 
inside finishing require skill and tools that the average layman 
does not possess. Therefore, in view of these facts, together 
with the improbabihty of a field man being required to do such 
work, no suggestions on the subject will be offered here. The 
most practical procedure that can be followed is to secure the 
services of a professional carpenter who possesses the 



fo. 



\ Water board 



Fig. 86. 



1 Boxing is set horizontally in most tent houses. The reason for this 
form of construction Ues in the fact that set in this manner a minimum 
of labor and waste of material is secured. Moreover, a tent house is 
usually only temporary in nature and is seldom designed as a complete 
protection against extreme weather. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 09 

necessar}' knowledge of and proper tools for finishing siir-h 
work. 

CONCRETE WORK 

Concrete. — This form of artificial stone is continually meeting 
with greater favor among builders, and although the average 
field man seldom is required to use such material he may never- 
theless find occasional need for a knowledge of its general nature. 
The chief reasons why concrete is in such universal demand are 
its superior strength as compared ^-ith masonry involving the 
use of hme mortar, the cheapness, ease, and simplicit}'' with which 
it may be made, the complete success which attends its use in 
nearly all forms of construction, and the permanency in con- 
struction which it affords. 

Cement. — This bears the same relation to concrete that ordi- 
nary lime mortar bears to other forms of masonry, but differs 
from hme in its capacity for hardening, or " setting," under 
water, while hme hardens only when exposed to air. It is ob- 
vious that this particular characteristic of cement, which gives 
it the name of " hydrauhc " cement, renders it preferable to 
Ume for general use. - 

There are a number of different cements manufactured, but 
Portland and natural cements are most widely used and are 
the only ones that can be considered in detail here. Rosendale, 
formerly applying only to the Ulster County, N. Y., natural 
cements, is a name now given to practically all natm-al cements 
of this country. Another varietj^, known as " Puzzolan," is 
made by grinding slaked hme and slag together. Sihca cement 
consists of a ground mixtm'e of cement and quartz sand. 

Natural Cement. — This is produced by burning certain clay- 
bearing hmestone, or calcareous clay, after it has been quarried 
and broken in fragments of a size most convenient to handle, 
the quarrj^ng, breaking, and burning being done in a manner 
similar to that employed in preparing hme. Later the burned 
stone is crushed or ground to a fine powder. Natural cement 
sets qmcker than Portland cement, but is considerably inferior 
in strength. 

Portland Cement. — The production of Portland cement con- 
sists in grinding the different materials together in desired pro- 
portions, after which they are burned, at a temperature higher 
than that allowed in burning natural cements, and are then 



100 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

ground again until a fine powder is produced. By reason of the 
fact that this method of preparation permits absolute control 
of quantity and quahty of ingredients Portland cement is far 
superior to natm-al cements, and is therefore more widely used 
than the latter. 

Proportions. — Concrete consists of three principal materials 
mixed together in water, viz., cement, sand, and aggregate. 
These are mixed together in proportions previously determined 
by the nature of the use to which the concrete is to be put, the 
efficiency of the concrete depending chiefly upon the amount 
of each material used. The following table of mixtures is in 
sufficient detail to cover any concrete mixing the field man will 
be required to do: 



Proportions to 
1 Part Cement 




Sand 


Aggregate 




2 

2,1-^ 

3 


4 
5 

6 


For great strength ; to resist water. 

For moderate strength, such as in cellars, walls 

of small buildings, steps, curbs, etc. 
For ordinary work where a minimum of strength 

is required, such as in walks, small retaining 

walls, floors, etc. 



Sand. — The three principal varieties of sand are known as 
" Pit," '* River," and " Sea " sand, these names being derived, 
of course, from the location from which the respective varieties 
are obtained. 

Better results may be obtained in concrete work if coarse- 
and fine-grained sands are mixed together. Such a mixture 
reduces the total void, and therefore requires less cement for 
filHng. Any sand used must be screened, if leaves, twigs, dirt, 
or other foreign materials are present. Voids in sand vary from 
25% to 40%, according to the degree of coarseness or fineness. 

Pit Sand. — This usually has sharp angular grains and will be 
found most satisfactory for general use. The chief disadvan- 
tage often encountered in securing it is the presence of clay 
pockets, occasionally so extensive as to make it necessary either 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 101 

to wash the sand or else mix the clay into it. Clay has no per- 
ceptible detrimental effect on rich mortar, and is even desirable 
in lean mortar when it is thoroughly mixed with the sand. 

River Sand, — In nearly all locahties river sand has smooth, 
round grains, made so by constant friction against each other 
when disturbed by water, and although it is not as desirable 
as pit sand it may be used with satisfactory results in all ordi- 
nary concrete work. As with pit sand, however, care must be 
taken to see that all foreign material is removed. 

Sea Sand. — In addition to the imdesirable rounded grains, 
sea sand may also carry ocean salts, which, unless they are re- 
moved by washing, may cause trouble by attracting moisture 
to concrete which should be kept perfectly dry. Such salts 
occur, however, in quantities too small to warrant rejection 
of sea sand when it is needed for other work. 

Aggregate. — This constitutes the main body of concrete, the 
same as brick or stone constitutes the body of other masonry, 
and is responsible to a coiTesponding degree for the efficiency 
of the concrete. Sand, which acts to a certain extent as a filler, 
is provided chiefly as an aid to proper distribution of and some 
assistance to the binding quahty of cement. The three prin- 
cipal forms of aggregate are: Crushed stone, gravel, and cinders. 

Crushed Stone. — This should be angular, sharp-edged frag- 
ments of some hard stone, such as granite, trap, gneiss, or quartz, 
having an average maximum edge length of not more than 3 
inches for use in walls or other work from 4 to 6 inches thick. 
The edge length should not exceed 2 inches for fighter work. 
Voids vary from 30% to 50%, depending upon the size of the 
fragments. Crushed stone will prove more generally effective 
than gravel. 

Gravel. — This is inferior to crushed stone in its lack of sharp 
edj^es and corners and its softer composition. It should be free 
from a clay coating and of a size similar to that of crushed 
stone heretofore mentioned. It does not make as strong con- 
crete as crushed stone, but is nevertheless used extensively and 
with fairly satisfactory results. 

Voids are slightly less than in crushed stone. 

Cinders. — This form of aggregate makes much weaker con- 
crete than crushed stone or gravel and is never used except in 
work where nails are to be driven into the concrete. The cin- 
ders must be very hard and care must be taken in ramming not 



102 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

to crush them. They, therefore, make a thin mixture impera- 
tive in order that filhng may progress properly with a minimum 
of ramming. 

Water. — Warm water is often used in concrete to prevent it 
from freezing, and salt water in the proportion of five pounds 
of salt to one hundred gallons of water is used for a similar pur- 
pose when there is no objection to the resultant crystalline de- 
posits which invariably appear during or immediately after 
setting. However, cold water may be used in freezing weather 
with no perceptible ill effects on the strength of the 
concrete. 

Re-enforcement. — This is provided as a means of binding con- 
crete so effectively that portions of the concrete can not fall 
out if cracks or breaks appear. Woven stock wire, barbed wire, 
mine rails, iron pipe, old wagon tires, or any similar material 
can be used to good advantage. Re-enforcement material need 
not be galvanized, as concrete will not rust plain iron. It is 
especially necessary to re-enforce thin walls, steps, floors, etc., 
and even in thick, heavy work much more satisfactory results 
may be obtained if some form of re-enforcement is used. 

Mixing. — Thorough mixing and proper proportions of all 
materials used are absolutely essential in any concrete construc- 
tion. Dry cement has no binding force. Coarse aggregate used 
at one time and finer aggregate used at another cause lack of 
uniformity in strength, or too much of one material or too httle 
of another may so impair the quahty of construction as to render 
the work worthless. 

A mechanical mixer is recommended only for use when large 
quantities of concrete are to be used; otherwise economy de- 
mands mixing by hand. 

This can best be done by placing proper proportions of sand and 
cement on a tight-bottomed platform (side and end walls on the 
platform are unnecessary) and turning the two together with a 
shovel until the mixture acquires a uniform color. A concavity 
is then made in the top of the pile and water is poured into 
this as needed, the mixture of sand and cement being taken 
gradually from the rim of the crater thus produced. Aggregate, 
previously wetted down, is then mixed into the " mud," and if 
necessary more water is added until the concrete is thin enough 
to pour readily and settle uniformly in the forms. If Portland 
cement is to be mixed during freezing weather, a minimum of 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 103 

water should be used or else heated. For table of estimates, 
see page 359, Appendix. 

. Forms. — It is always advisable to lay form lumber in water 
and let it swell to its greatest capacity before it is built into 
forms; otherwise water from the concrete may soak into and 
swell it to an extent that will cause it to buckle as it expands 
and thus present an uneven surface against which to place the 
concrete. 

Forms to be removed and re-erected at frequent intervals 
should be scraped clean of all large accumulations of concrete 
after each removal. Except when the nature of the work to 
be done demands them, sharp corners should be avoided. This 
may be done bj^ placing a triangular strip in the corner of the 
form where a corner of the concrete will be exposed. Inside 
corners require httle or no attention in this respect. Nothing 
definite can be offered on the subject of construction of forms; 
the work to be done always determines the style of form to 
be used. 

Filling Forms. — If the workman has reason to beheve that the 
nature of the material used for forms is such that the concrete 
may stick and chip away when the forms are removed he should 
avoid such trouble by lining the forms with paper each time they 
are erected. Under ordinary conditions, however, sticking may 
be prevented b}' wetting the forms before they are fiUed. 

If concrete is to be dropped more than 4 or 5 feet it should 
be re-mixed before ramming begins; otherwise the heavier ma- 
terials may be deposited at the bottom rather than uniformly 
throughout the mass. Thin mixtures do not require as much ram- 
ming as thick ones, and the latter should be thoroughly rammed 
as filling progresses. Ramming can best be done in narrow 
walls with a 5-foot length of 1-inch pipe. A heavier implement, 
preferably a 4- or 5-foot wooden ram having a 4-inch face and 
shod with iron, wiU be found more effective for heavier work. 
Thorough ramming adds about 50% to the strength of concrete 
and consohdates it from 4% to 6%. 

Layers to be built on later should be left rough on the exposed 
surface and then carefully cleaned and well wetted before the 
work of filling is resumed. 

Setting. — The length of time required for concrete to set 
depends upon the character and kind of cement used, the amount 
of water used in mixing, the degree of thoroughness in ramming, 



104 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

and the temperature of the air. Slow setting will be found 
preferable to quick setting concrete in practically all ordinary 
work, and the minimum length of time allowed to elapse before 
the forms are removed should not in any case be less than forty- 
eight hours. Even then it is always advisable to protect the 
work from sudden jars or strains while the new forms are being 
erected. All concrete grows harder with age.^ 

Cement Finish. — Surfaces to be finished, top-dressed, or plas- 
tered with cement should be rough, clean, and well wetted. The 
plaster, consisting of one part cement to two parts sand, must 
be thoroughly mixed but with only enough water to leave it 
plastic. If made too thin it will fail to adhere closely to the 
concrete. It must be kept weU moistened while it hardens. 
Neat or even very rich cement mortar frequently cracks in 
setting and is not, therefore, as good for plaster as the mortar 
carrying the per cent of sand heretofore mentioned. Natural 
cement plaster should not be used on concrete made with Portland 
cement nor should Portland cement plaster be used on concrete 
made with natural cement. Plaster made of equal parts of 
both may be used on concrete made with the same mixture, 
but separation of the plaster and concrete frequently occurs 
when the two are made with different cements. Top dressing 
on walks, steps, floors, etc., should keep pace with the work of 
laying the concrete; otherwise the concrete and dressing will 
not set together 

Concrete Blocks. — The method of construction followed in 
making these, i.e., leaving them hollow, constitutes their chief 
advantage in many respects. The spaces left in the structures 
made with blocks reduce the first cost of construction by a 
corresponding decrease in the amount of material required; they 

1 In recent years numerous prominent architects, builders, and 
scientists declare that the pyramids of Egypt are of concrete con- 
struction, but whether or not such a theory merits serious considera- 
tion can not be discussed here. It is a well-established fact, however, 
that the use of concrete was for centuries practically a lost art, con- 
clusive proof to this effect being provided by the existence at the 
present time of buildings erected in the Orient in the third and fourth 
centuries and known definitely to have been constructed of concrete. 
A prominent architect of Milwaukee, recently returned from a tour of 
inspection of ancient structures in that locaUty, states that upon one 
occasion, when he attempted to chip away fragments of concrete from 
a bridge, the most vigorous chiseUng resulted only in a stream of sparks 
and failed utterly to chip the concrete. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 105 

may serve as passages for flues, wiring, or plumbing, and the}' 
prevent sudden changes of temperature within buildings having 
hollow block walls. Moreover, walls made of hollow blocks may 
be erected and completed in less time than stone or brick walls 
and do not require near as much mortar in laying. In strength 
they are equal to brick walls and in their capacity for resistance 
to fire are far superior. 

Successful block construction, however, requires the use of a 
block machine, but this expense will prove disproportionate to 
other expenses unless -the proposed structure will require a very 
large number, of blocks. The minipaum cost of a rehable ma- 
chine equipped with enough different moulds for all ordinary 
work is about $50.00. It wiU be seen from this that forms of 
lumber are much cheaper for limited construction. 

One of the chief disadvantages of hollow-block walls is their 
tendency to split when improper proportions are used in the 
concrete, when careless mixing has been allowed, or when the 
blocks are laid before they are firmly set. Some medical au- 
thorities also contend that residences having hollow-block walls 
are unsanitary, because such walls attract and retain moisture. 
In the majority of cases, however, this is due to improper con- 
struction. 

The general consensus of opinion among builders seems to be 
in favor of re-enforced solid walls for residences and hollow block 
walls for other buildings. 

PAINTING 

Object. — Paint is used for two principal purposes, viz.: (1) To 
protect iron or wood building material from weathering, and 
(2) to secure a more pleasing external appearance of buildings 
and other structures. Used on ii'on it prevents rust and on wood 
it prevents the entrance of moisture, which would eventuall}^ cause 
more or less damage through rotting the material. 

Composition. — ]\Iost paints used in all ordinary outside and 
inside work consist chiefly of white lead or zinc oxide ground 
in raw linseed oil and having the coloring matter added to the 
mixture before it leaves the factory. Body matter invariably 
settles to the bottom when the paint is left standing for any 
considerable length of time, and must, therefore, be stirred and 
forced to mix with the oil before it can be used. 

Ready-made paints are usually mixed thicker than is neces- 



106 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

sary or even desirable, but this trouble may be overcome by 
adding boiled oil in quantities which reduce the paint to the 
desired thinness. Thinning with raw oil necessitates the addition 
of a drier if the work being done requires prompt hardening. 
Commercial driers are carried in stock by practically all dealers 
in paint, but if the work is remote from such a source of supply 
then sulphate of zinc, htharge, or sugar of lead may be used in 
the proportion of two teaspoonfuls to five pounds of prepared 
paint of any color. Many painters prefer what is known as 
" Japan varnish," but if this is used in excess it will cause the 
paint to crack as it hardens. Turpentine is also frequently 
used for thinning, except in the first coat. It is cheaper than 
oil and causes the paint to flow more readily and uniformly 
from the brush. It may be used in inside work with good re- 
sults, but reduces the firmness of paint to a degree that renders 
it unfit for outside work. 

In emergencies kerosene (coal oil) may also be used as a thinner, 
but can be used with better success in stains than in paints. 
If wax is melted and thoroughly mixed into a stain thinned 
with coal oil it will produce a smooth, glossy finish. 

Colors. — Ready mixed coloring matter may be secured from, 
any paint dealer. Like paint, it should be well stirred before 
it is added, and finally should be stirred into the paint till 
the whole mass assumes a uniform color. 

Coats. — From three to five coats are applied in all high-grade 
painting, but in all common work three coats will be found suf- 
ficient. Surfaces to be painted must be perfectly clean and dry, 
and if of lumber, must be thoroughly seasoned. The first coat, 
known as the " primer " or " priming," should not carry too 
much oil or turpentine, since these may sink into woodwork and 
leave a large per cent of the paint body unevenly distributed 
over the surface, where it wiU eventually peel away. Very thin 
paint will not " stand," or adhere well, if used on an iron sur- 
face. The second coat should not be applied before the primer 
is thoroughly hardened. The last coat, in which the coloring 
matter is placed, may be finished " dull " or in " gloss." Dull 
or dead finish results from the use of turpentine alone as a thin- 
ner; a gloss finish may be secured by using equal parts of oil 
and turpentine for thinning. Two coats are usually sufficient 
on iron surfaces, but the paint used in this work should have a 
body composed of one of the oxids of iron, since white lead, in 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 107 

common use in paint for woodwork, will not stand on iron and 
must therefore be renewed at frequent intervals. The red paint 
kno^Ti to laymen as *' railroad " paint can be used with equally- 
good results on either wood or iron. It carries a large per cent 
of drier, is cheap and quite generally effective. 

Amount of Paint Required for One Square. — For primer work 
more paint per square is of course necessary than for succeed- 
ing coats, this being due to the fact that the open pores of the 
surface to be painted must be filled before an even surface of 
paint can be obtained. Usually, on dressed lumber, from five 
to six pounds of thin keg paint per square will be found suffi- 
cient for the primer. If the lumber is undressed and very 
rough then this amount must be increased even as much occa- 
sionally as 50% or 75%. 

After a firm primer has been secured the first coat will re- 
quire approximately four pounds of keg paint per square, while 
the second and succeeding courses should not require more than 
two and one-half or three pounds. 

Care of Paint Brushes. — These should be thoroughly cleaned 
and dried after using and before they are stored away. Clean- 
ing can best be done by alternate soaking in coal oil, turpen- 
tine, gasoline, or hnseed oil and pressing or kneading to remove 
paint. When free from all paint the bristles may be worked dry 
with paper or cloth. If the paint is not to be removed, then 
the brushes should be stored in oil to prevent hardening. 

Brushes having the bristles set in rubber or cement should 
never be boiled: boiling will dissolve the binding and the bristles 
will be released. 

FENCES 

On some of the National Forests, especially in the West, 
where corrals and drift fences must be provided for the proper 
handhng of stock, the field man may find it necessary to de- 
vote a large portion of his time to the inspection, repair, or even 
construction of fences. 

These may be of stone, logs, rails, brush, plank, wire, or pick- 
ets, depending upon the supply of material available and the 
permanent or temporary nature of the fence to be built. Plank 
and wire are the most widely used materials, and fences con- 
structed of these will be found in all parts of the country. 

Stone. — A very important item in the construction of a stone 



108 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

fence, or "wall," is the substantiality of the side walls. If these 
are to be 4 or 5 feet high the base of the wall should be at least 
3 feet thick. Side walls are built up separately with the larger 
stones at the bottom and are drawn in toward each other as the 

top is reached, until at the very 
top the fence has about the 
same thickness as one side wall. 
The space between the side walls 
is kept filled with smaller stones, 
filling keeping pace with the 
growth of the walls. Tie stones 
are used after the side walls have 
been brought together. A cross 
section of a stone fence is shown 
in Fig. 87. 

Logs. — Log fences may be con- 
structed as shown in Fig. 88. 
The short cross logs need not 
exceed 4 feet in length, and are 
fitted with notches into which 
the long logs are sunk. These 
are also notched on the upper side immediately over the cross 
logs and the next cross logs above are dropped into the notches. 
Proper construction of log fences requires them to be built up 




Fig. 87. — Cross-section of a 
stone fence. 



Log fence. 
Fig. 88.^Method of laying ground logs. 



perpendicularly in order to prevent the logs from slipping. This 
method of construction is especially necessary along steep hill- 
sides. 

Rails. — There are two principal methods of constructing rail 
fences, although a third method is the same as that employed 
in building log fences. The most widely used style of rail fence, 
and one that is common to all parts of the South and to many 
parts of the West and middle West, is known as the." worm " 
fence, and derives its name from the manner in which the rails 
are laid. The first rails, or the "ground" rails, are laid as 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



109 



shown in Fig. 89. Succeeding tiers must be placed firmly on 
these and the corners or " locks " must be built up exactly per- 




FiG. 89. — Worm rail fence. Method of laying ground raik. 



pendicular. The latter may be fastened by means of " stake " 
rails set as shown in Fig. 90, and these are then held in place 
by the " riders." Such a fence is known as a " staked and 
ridered worm " fence. The method of " cross " staking the 




Cross stakes at a lock. 



Side stakes at a lock. 




Panel stakes. 
Fig. 90. 



110 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

locks is shown at the top of the figure. Its chief disadvantage 
hes in the fact that the stake rails take up considerable ground 
along either side of the fence. However, the method is about 
the most common one used. 

The second method shown, where the crosses of the stake rails 
are at right angles to the line of fence, is also widely used. A 
variation of this method requires the foot of either stake to be 
set close against the gi'ound rail at the next lock. 

A third method of staking is also shown in this figure and 
provides for the staking of each panel at or near its center. 
Heavy poles, sometimes long enough to cover six or eight panels, 
may be used for riders. 

Worm fences for corrals should not have short sharp corners. 

These present excellent opportunities for viciously inclined 
animals to " hem " or " corner " the weaker ones and punish 
them severely. 

A second general style of rail fence, known as a " post and 
rail" fence, is illustrated in Fig. 91. Such fences may be built 
of long poles, and are therefore especially adapted for corrals 




Fig. 91. — Post and rail fence. 

and other small enclosures where stock is to be confined for 
short periods. Posts are set in pairs at desired intervals and 
are wired or otherwise fastened together, once at or near the 
ground and again near the tops. A third tie at or near the 
middle of the posts may also be used if the fence is to be 8 or 
10 feet high. This prevents the posts from spreading and 
allowing displacement of the rails or poles. Where long, heavy 
poles are to be used and it is not considered necessary to start 
the fence at the ground, blocks may be cut the desired length 
and set endwise under the ends of the lower poles. Top poles 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



111 



may be laid on the top ties, thus serving to bind the posts to- 
gether more securely. Corral fences of this kind should have 
rounded corners. 

Pickets. — These are known in many locaUties as " pahngs," 
although the latter term is generally appUed to the spht variety 
of pickets which are so widely used in fences in the South and 
Southeast. The construction of a picket fence consists merely 
in setting the posts at required intervals, connecting them with 
" stringers," usually two in number, and nailing the pickets to 
the stringers. The pickets should be set perpendicularly rather 
than at right angles to the stringers, this rule of construction 
holding good even when the fence ascends or descends steep 
slopes. The common idea that more pickets are required in fenc- 
ing through hilly country than across level country is erroneous, 
as may be seen by observing Fig. 92. 

In this figure it is assumed that the pickets are set perpendicu- 
larly. The line 1 indicates a length of fence built across a hill, 




Fig. 92. 



while line 2 represents the horizontal length. More posts will be 
required in line 1 than in Hne 2 if the stringer lengths are to 
be the same, and in any case the amount of stringer material 
must be increased, but the number of pickets wiU be the same 
in both hnes. 

Spht pickets, or palings, which are usually too thick and irreg- 
ular to be nailed to stringers, may be fastened upright by means 
of wires attached to the posts and woven about the paUngs as 
indicated in Fig. 93. The wires are stapled securely to the 
first post but loosely to the second until the panel has been 
billed with palings. They are then drawn as tight as possible 
and securely stapled to the next post. Succeeding panels are 
constructed in a similar manner. Not less than No. 12 gauge 
wire should be used, and No. 9 will be found much better. 



112 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Plank. — The construction of a plank fence is so simple that little 
need be said on the subject. If care is taken to trim or set the 
posts in such a way that a flat surface is presented to the planks, 



^ 



Fig. 93. — Picket or "paling" fence. 

and if the latter are sound and securely nailed to the posts, a 
substantial fence will be the result. Red oak {Quercus rubra), 
Spanish oak {Q. digitata), blackjack (Q. marilandica), and syca- 
more {Platanus occidentalis) are especially hable to warp, crack, 
twist, or split and should never be used in a plank fence. The 
chief disadvantage of any plank fence is its susceptibiUty to 
fire and to cUmatic conditions. 

Brush. — A brush fence consists merely of a row of brush piled 
high enough to prevent stock from passing over it. It is the 
very poorest form of a fence and should never be used if other 
material is available. It is very susceptible to fire, takes u]) a 
large amount of ground, is unsightly, soon rots and settles and 
requires constant repairing. 

Barbed Wire. — Well-set corner posts and proper tension and 
attachment of wires are the most important points to consider 





2-point or "cattle" wire. 



4-point or "hog" wire. 



Fig. 94. 



in building barbed wire fence. After the fence row has been 
brushed out and the posts set the lower wire should be laid 
first, since trouble will be had in separating them if all the 
wires are laid at once. The common practice of carrying the 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 113 

spool or reel of wire along the fence row is to be avoided if this 
is at all possible. It is not only tedious work, but it is also a 
dangerous practice if the wii'e is not properly wound on the 
spool. The best method of laying wire is to bore a 2-inch hole 
through a heavy plank, place the plank flat on the ground, set 
the spool endwise on it and hold it there by means of a crow- 
bar thrust through the spool and plank into the ground. The 
wire may then be laid out wdth a saddle horse, the rider secur- 
ing the wu-e to the saddle horn wath two or three turns of a 
12- or 14-foot rope tied into the wire and holding the loose end 
of the rope in his hand. "VMien fastened to the horn in this 
manner the rope may be released instantly if this becomes nec- 
essary. The w^ire itself should never be looped or tied to the 
horn. The other man remains at the spool and holds the upper 
end of the crowbar. Friction of the spool against the plank 
prevents it from revolving too rapidly and httle trouble with. 
tangles need be expected. Spools carry from 80 to 110 rods 
of wire weighing approximately one pound per rod, and such a 
length of w^ire may be laid out with an average size animal trained 
to pull under the saddle. If not so trained, harness must be 
used. 

However, this method of laying wire can be foUowed only 
with diflSculty if the wire is to be hung to trees growing along 
the fence hne. Hanging it in this manner necessitates cutting 
and spHcing if the wire is to pass on different sides of trees. 

Tension of wires crossing hills and hollows should be tested 
at the highest and lowest points. This should not be done by 
seizing the ware with the hands, but should be accomphshed 
by means of a heavy pole or crowbar placed across the wire 
and forced downward or upward. Defective wires, or even 
sound wires under great tension, may suddenly break, and when 
this occurs the ends recoil with a spiral twisting motion that 
may result in serious injuries to the workmen standing near. 

Staples should be set wdth the points in a hne diagonally 
across the grain of the posts. If driven in this manner they 
are much less likely to split the wood and always hold the wire 
more securely. One-inch staples should be used in hardwood, 
1^ inch in medium hardwood, and 1^4 i^ich in softwood. 

The stretcher must be operated with steady, regular move- 
ments and must be so attached to the wire that it will not slip. 
The best splice for barbed wire is the same as that used in 



114 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

splicing telephone wire and which is known as the Western 
Electric joint. See Fig. 40. 

If gloves are to be worn they should be of hard, stiff leather 
and should fit loosely in order that they may be removed in- 
stantly if the barbs hang in them. Soft cloth gloves should never 
be worn. They not only allow the barbs to injure the hands, 
but they may become so badly entangled on the barbs that in 
case the wire breaks or other accidents occur the workman may 
suffer serious injuries. 

Woven Wire. — This is hung with the narrow meshes at the 
bottom, and, like barbed wire, must be tightly stretched and se- 
curely stapled to well-set posts if a substantial fence is desired. 





General stock fence. 



Fig. 95. 



Sheep and hog fence. 




Fig. 96. — Block and tackle stretcher for woven wire fencing. 



Its construction prevents it from being laid out from a station- 
ary reel, and the roll or spool must therefore be revolved along 
the cleared fence row after the loose end has been made fast to 
some stationary object. The heavy top and bottom wires should 
be securely stapled to each post, but, except in rare cases, it is 
not necessary to staple all the intermediate wires so often. The 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



115 



perpendicular stay wires are not stapled. No trouble will be 
experienced with buckling line wires stretched across ridges and 
hollows if the fence is hung so the stay wu-es set perpendicularly. 
Sphces in woven wire are made the same as in barbed wire, 
each hne wire in one length being spliced to the corresponding 
wire in the other. Stretchers used on woven wire consist of a 
pair of heavy wooden clamps which are bolted together through 
the meshes and which are drawn in by means of a double set 
of claws working on a chain attached to a tree or heavy post. 
Another style of stretcher is operated by means of a team hitched 
to a block and tackle. 

Comer Posts. — For ordinary smooth or barbed wire these 
need be.no larger than the hne posts, but should be from 12 to 
18 inches longer and set deeper 
in the ground. Woven wire, by 
reason of the increased strain it 
imposes on a corner post while 
stretching is in progress, requires 
heavier corner posts. They 
should be not less than 8 inches 
in top diameter and should be 
at least 9 feet long. Being of 
this size they are too large and 
heavy to be driven with a post 

maul and must therefore be set. They should either be roofed 
like a telephone pole or rounded off at the upper end and 
painted or smeared with tar to prevent the entrance of water. 

Setting and Bracing. — The best method of setting and bracing 
a corner post is shown in Fig. 97, the same method with lighter 
material also being effective for corner posts to which smooth 
or barbed wire is to be hung. 

For woven wire the post should be set not less than 3 feet, 
preferably 4 feet, in the ground, and should be firmly tamped. 
The brace should be cut long enough to allow the lower end to 
rest on a flat stone, shown at 1, set at least 12 feet from the 
foot of the post and directly in line with the fence. The upper 
end of the brace is fitted into a notch cut about 8 inches below 
the upper end of the post and is fastened there with a 20-d or 
60-d spike, which will prevent its lateral displacement. Six or 
eight strands of not less than No. 12 gauge smooth or barbed 
wire are then wrapped about the lower end of the brace and 




Fig. 97. — Brace for corner post. 



116 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

corner post as shown in the figure and are twisted together with 
an iron rod or a stick. If a stick is used it should have one 
end nailed to the brace after the wires have been twisted tight. 
An iron rod may be driven into the ground. 

Line Posts. — The most durable woods for any fence posts are 
white oak (Quercus alba), post oak (Q. minor), black locust {Ro- 
hinia pseudacacia), sassafras (Sassafras sassafras), red mulberry 
(Morus rubra), any of the cedars or junipers, and dead heart- 
pine, which carries a large amount of pitch. All posts should 
be thoroughly seasoned before they are set. 

Line posts need not exceed 4 or 5 inches in diameter nor 63/^ 
or 7 feet in length. If they are to be driven, the upper ends 
should be rounded off to prevent splitting or battering when 
the maul is used. The points should not be drawn out fine, 
but should be at least 3^ inch across the tip and not less than 
16 inches long. Shoulders should be tapering rather than blunt. 
Posts to be set do not of course require sharpening. The prac- 
tice of burning or charring the points is not recommended, since 
posts so treated seem to attract and hold moisture more than 
when not. For an illustration of a sharpening rack see Fig. 98. 




Fig. 98. — Rack for sharpening posts. 

Setting or Driving. — ^Line posts should always be driven rather 
than set if this is at all practicable. A heavy, sharp-pointed 
instrument, known throughout the South as a '' spud," may be 
used in starting a hole, or a crowbar may be used for the same 
purpose. The sharpened post is placed in the hole and is then 
settled firmly with an iron maul weighing from twelve to twenty 
pounds. This not only makes a more substantial fence but also 
eliminates the extra labor that would be required in digging 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



117 



the holes and afterward tamping the posts, items of labor which 
involve gi-eater expense than sharpening and driving the posts. 

If hard or stony ground prohibits driving, posts may be set 
into holes, large end do^ATiward, and firmly tamped. The holes 
should not have a greater diameter than is absolutely necessary 
for removal of the dirt and insertion of the posts. Fine dry 
dirt should be firmly packed about the posts and a watershed 
at least 3 inches high should be left above the ground. Mud, 
or even very damp dirt, does not make satisfactory tamping 
material. As it dries it will settle aw^ay from and allow the post 
to work loose. 

Holes should be from 14 to 20 inches deep. Post spaces for 
woven wire should not exceed one rod, but in smooth or barbed 
wire fences where stays are to be used may be as long as 3 or 
4 rods. 

Lightning Rods. — These are provided as a means of carrying 
electricity from the w^ires into the ground. The simplest form 
is made of ordinary smooth w^ire, preferably of No. 12 gauge, 
which is stapled downward along the post, the lower end being 
placed in permanently moist earth. To insure its contact with 
such earth the -^dre should be attached before the post is set. 
Later it is -^Tapped closely about each wire in the fence. One 
such wire should be attached to every fourth or fifth post along 
fences where stock congregate for water or for protection against 
extreme weather. Otherwise one wire to every ten posts will be 
found sufficient. 

Gates. — Tw^o very common varieties of fence gates are shown 
in Fig. 99, one being kno\\Ti as a '' shding " gate and the other 




Swinging. 



Fig. 99. — Gates. 



Sliding. 



118 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



as a '* swinging " gate. Properly constructed and firmly hung 
swinging gates are preferable to any style of sliding gate, but 
with the greater first cost of construction the cost of mainte- 
nance is also greater. Moreover, owing to a general impression 
on the part of the traveling public that such gates lock auto- 
matically when slammed shut, the danger of their being left open 
is much greater than that involved in the use of a sliding 
gate. 

Hinges for swinging gates should be so constructed that the 
gates may swing out of the fence hne in either direction, and 
the style of hinge shown in Fig. 100 is recommended as being the 
most satisfactory in this respect, 
i^nother convenient and durable 
style of hinge, which may be made 
from an old wagon tire or from 
other discarded iron of the same 
strength, is not fitted with the lag screw which fastens into the 
post, but consists merely of a heavy staple, into which a bent 
strap is fitted. 

Any swinging gate should be securely braced from the lower 
hinge to the corner diagonally opposite, and when possible should 
also be guyed to the gate post as shown in Fig. 101. Both gate 



Fig. 100. — Gate hinge. 




.g 




Brace 



Fig. 101.— Gate guy. 



Fig. 102. — Gate tie. 



posts in a fence may be tied together as shown in Fig. 102, but 
care must be taken to see that such ties are high enough to 
permit tlie passage of loaded vehicles beneath them. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 119 

CARPENTER'S KIT 

For ordinary rough work about a station a carpenter's kit 
should include the following tools: 

1 Handsaw, cross cut 1 Plane, block 

1 Handsaw, rip 4 Chisels, ^-, H-. 1- and 1 H- 

1 Saw, keyhole, or compass inch 

1 Square 1 Level-plumb 

1 Brace 1 Caliper 

2 Bits, augur, in Vie-inch sizes 1 Compass 
from ■* 16- to 1-inch, inclusive 1 Rule, caliper 

3 Bits, gimlet, yi-, ^/le- and 1 Wrench, monkey 
M-inch 1 Hammer, claw 

4 Bits, drUl, brace, M-. ^/i6-, 3 FUes, saw, assorted sizes 
%- and '^/i6-inch 1 Grindstone 

1 Plane, jack 1 Whetstone 

Fine work requires a much more elaborate set, but it is assumed 
that a professional carpenter will be employed when such work 
is to be done and that he will furnish his own tools. It is obvi- 
ously impracticable for every field man to have access to a kit 
even as limited as that listed above, but in most instances he will 
gradually acquire many such tools for his own personal use. 
Handsaws, squares, hammers, and grindstones may be secured 
by requisition, as may also numerous other tools if the nature 
of the work to be done demands them. At any rate, if he feels 
that his personal needs demand the purchase of carpenter tools 
the field man will do well to confine his purchases to such tools 
as are described below, A complete kit of high-grade tools 
includes from fifty to one hundred pieces, together with the 
chest weighs from seventy-five to two hundred pounds and 
costs from $25.00 to $150.00, or even more. 

Handsaws. — Cross-Cut. — The two flat surfaces of this are 
known as the " face " and the " back," the former being the 
side next the carpenter as he holds the handle of the saw in his 
right hand, the latter being the opposite side. The end of the 
cutting edge next the handle is the " heel," the other end the 
" point." Handsaws are made in various sizes, each of which 
may be expressed in a different manner by different carpenters. 
Thus one carpenter may designate a saw as No. 16 because it 
is made of what is kno-^m as "16 spring steel "; another car- 
penter may refer to the same saw as a No. 11 because it has 
eleven teeth to the inch. Spring steel numbers are usually in- 
dicated on the face along with the manufacturer's name or 
trade-mark; tooth numbers are stamped on the face near the 



120 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

heel. Larger numbers of the spring steel indicate greater tough- 
ness and flexibility of the blade; larger tooth numbers indicate 
more teeth per inch and consequently a finer cutting edge. 
Teeth are frequently known as " points," and a saw may be 
designated as a " six-point " or " eight-point " saw. A nine- 
point saw of 12 spring steel will be found most satisfactory for 




^^T^^^^^ iFF^^r^^ ^fWWF^FV^ 



5}4 points to the inch. 6 points to the inch. 9 points to the inch. 
Fig. 103. — Handsaw teeth. 

general field work, as it may be used with equally good results 
in hard or soft lumber. It should have a 24- or 26-inch blade 
with a straight back rather than a skew back. 

The straight-back variety may be used as a straight edge in 
case nothing else longer than a foot-rule is available. The cost 
is about $1.25 or $1.50. 

Filing Handsaws. — A thoroughly practical knowledge of 
handsaw filing can be acquired only by experience, and the , 
beginner may expect to damage more or less the first few saws 
he attempts to file. He should bear in mind that unless some 
teeth have been completely l>roken out, or at least so badly 
dulled that the entire set must be filed down, he need not exert 
severe pressure on his file. Any good sharp file will cut away 
the teeth faster than he at first realizes, and unless he exercises 
great caution he is more than Hkely to find that he has caused 
himseK considerable extra work in the final " jointing up." 

The saw should be held firmly in a clamp manufactured espe- 
cially for this purpose, or, if no such clamp is available, the im- 
provised article may be made from two boards about the length 
of the saw-blade. These should have their upper outer edges 
beveled in order to afford the file free access to the saw-teeth. 
The blade is placed between the boards and the latter are then 
fastened in a vise. After the blade has been made secure the 
filer should begin, preferably at the heel of the saw, and file all 
teeth cutting on one side of the blade before he begins on the 
others. Assuming that he stands at the vise in such a position 
that the heel of the upturned blade is to his left, he places his 
file horizontally across the blade, then moves the file handle 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 121 

toward his left until the file drops squarely down before the 
first tooth that cuts on the side opposite him, in this case the 
back of the saw, and files the forward edge of that tooth. The 
next tooth on that side is then filed and this operation is repeated 
on down to the point of the blade. The saw is then reversed in 
the clamp, or vise, and the remaining teeth are filed in a similar 
manner. After all the points have been sharpened it then be- 
comes necessary to joint the saw, that is, see that no long or 
short points are left. Long points cause a saw to jump, hang, 
feed to one side, or push hard. Short points can not cut, and 
the only remedy in such a case is to file the other points down 
even with the short ones. Thus it is that too much emphasis 
can not be placed on the admonition to be careful and not bear 
too heavily on the file. Unevenness may be detected by placing 
the edge of a carpenter's rule along the points. 

The whole secret of good saw filing is to keep the teeth as 
nearly as possible in their original shape. 

Setting Handsaws. — Unlike the larger two-man cross-cut saws, 
most handsaws have such fine teeth and are used in so much 
finer work that it is next to impossible to set them with any- 
thing except a regular saw set. This tool is made in such a 
way that it can be regulated for different work. Hardwoods 
require the least set in a saw, seasoned timber requiring not 
more than ^/go inch, or just enough to aUow the blade to foUow 
through without binding. Softwoods, by reason of the fact that 
they cut faster and usually are more or less spongy, require 
greater set, depending entirely upon their firmness. 

Rip. — This should be 26 inches long mth a straight back and 
should have five and one-half or six teeth to the inch. It costs 
from $1.50 to $2.00. 

Keyhole. — This is used in cutting circles or curves and may 
be known as a "compass " saw. For general use it should have 
a 12-inch blade. Care must be 
taken not to kink, crack, or bend 
it short, since the blade is necessa- 
rilj^ ver}^ narrow, and therefore 
easily damaged. The cost, includ- ^^^ io4.-Keyliole or "com- 
ing that of two or three extra blades, pass " saw. 
varies from twenty-five to forty 

cents. The uses to which a keyhole saw is put subject it to 
severe strain that frequently results in a broken or otherwise 




122 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

damaged blade, and this of course demands the purchase of new 
blades. Manufacturers recognize the impracticability of using 
high-grade steel in such blades, and therefore supply them in 
lower grades that can be produced at much less expense than 
better grades used in other saws. 

Square. — See pages 127 to 137, inclusive. 

Brace. — ^This should be of the ratchet variety, which permits 
boring holes in corners or at other points where complete revolu- 
tions of the sweep are impossible. It consists of the top or 
knob or head, the sweep (including the handle), the ratchet, the 
chucks which hold the bit, and the sleeve which screws down 
over and forces the chucks against the shoulders of the bit. 
It should have at least a 10-inch sweep, which makes the crook 
that carries the handle 5 inches deep. The plain finish is most 
satisfactory for general station work. The cost varies from 
$1.50, plain finish, to $5.00, nickel finish. 

Bits. — Auger. — These consist of the shank, the threads, the 
knives, the lips, and the screw. The shank is the smooth, round 
part the squared head of which fits into the chucks of the brace; 
the threads, or twists, are the spiral wings which remove the 
borings; the knives cut the borings loose; the lips cut verti- 
cally ahead of the knives; and the screw is the threaded lower 
tip that feeds the knives into the timber. If the screw, knives, 
and lips are in good condition, no pressure on the brace will be 
required to make the bit cut. 

Bits carrying only one thread or wing are known as " solid 
center " bits, but they may carry two knives and Ups. They 
cost from $1.25 to $2.00, while those with double threads cost 
from seventy-five cents to $1.00 per set, depending upon the 
number in the set, usually thirteen. Most manufacturers stamp 
the size of each bit, either on the shank or on the squared 
head, the size number being indicated in ^/i6-inch. Thus a 
bit stamped " 14 " is known to have a cutting diameter of ^^/i^,- 
or %-inch, while one stamped " 5 " cuts a ^/15-inch 
hole. 

Car. — These are for use in boring heavy timbers and may be 
either single or double threaded. They seldom are equipped 
with a lip. They vary from ^/i6- to 13^-inches in diameter and 
cost from thirty-five to seventy-five cents each. 

Expansive. — These have no twist, but are fitted with a mov- 
able knife bearing a hp, the screw usually bearing a second Hp. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



123 



They vary in price from $1.20 to $2.00 each, depending upon 
the size. 

Drill. — These are for use in iron or in hard, close-grained 




Brace. 



Car bits. 



Brace drill. 



Gimlet bit. 




Expansive bit. 





Solid center. 



Fig. 105. — Bits. 



Auger. 



wood, and are especially adapted to boring timbers that may be 
full of nails or other metals or in boring holes that must be 
started near or through iron. Instead of having knives and 



124 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

lips like auger bits the lower ends of the threads are cut back at 
an angle of about forty-five degrees or less and are ground flat, 
the sharp edges thus produced forming the peculiarly constructed 
knives necessary in boring iron or hardwoods. These bits are 
made in ^/i6~inch sizes and cost from ten to thirty-five cents each. 

Gimlet. — Gimlet bits are shaped about the same as drill bits, 
except that the laiives are longer in proportion to the rest of 
the bit and the material of which they arc constructed is not, 
as durable as that of di'ill bits. They are for use in boring small 
holes through very soft wood and cost from five to ten cents each. 

Planes.— Jac/c. — For general use about a station this plane 
should have an h*on frame 15 inches long and wide enough to 
carry a 2-inch bit. Lateral regulation of the blade or bit is 





Jack plane. Block plane. 

Fig. lOG. 



provided for by means of a thumb lever immediately before 
and at the upper end of the handle. It may be set to cut deep or 
shallow by revolving a circular milled nut which raises or lowers 
it thi-ough the medium of a flanged tumbler located parallel 
with the frame beneath the upper part of the blade. The cost 
is $1.00 or $1.50. 

Block. — A block plane is especially adapted for cutting across 
the grain of wood. The blade is raised or lowered by means of 
a smaU horizontal screw wheel located immediately beneath the 
palm piece. Its rim works in a Y-lever fitted at the forward end 
with a vertical elbow joint the end of which fits into grooves 
in the lower side of the blade. To release the blade the screw 
bolt near its center must be loosened until the blade can be shd 
along to where the hole at the end of the slot coincides with the 
bolt. This plane should have about a 6- or 7-inch frame and 
should carry an inch or an inch-and-a-haK blade. The cost 
varies from seventy-five cents to $1.50. 

Chisels. — These consist of the wooden handle, the handle 
socket, the shank, the blade, and the bit. The last has a single 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 125 

bevel at the rear and the corners are square. Ordinarily a set 
includes eight pieces, but for all common work about a station 
four chisels will be found sufficient. These should be ^-, %-, 




Fig. 107.— Chisels. 

1- and 1 3^^-inches in size. The four cost from seventy-five cents 
to $1.50. 

Level-Plumb. — In view of the fact that many inferior instru- 
ments are placed on the market, this tool should be tested before 
it is purchased. An easy yet accurate test is to place it on a 
smooth, straight plank and then block the plank up till the 
instrument indicates that it is level. This will be when the 
bubble remains stationary immediately under the mark found 
on the glass or the glass guard. If the bubble assumes the 
same position when the instrument is reversed the level is re- 
liable. The plumb is tested in a similar manner except that 
the instrument is placed in a vertical position against an object 
known to be plumb. The bubble will rest immediately under 



Fig. 108. — Level-plumb. 

the plumb mark regardless of whether the face or the back is 
placed against the object. 

The best instrument for rough work has a 20-inch iron frame 
and costs from seventy-five cents to $1.50. 

Caliper. — A caUper is for use in securing diameters, and the 
best style for aU-round work has flat legs that maj^ be pushed 
past each other so the instrument may be used in securing 
inside as well as outside diameters. The cost is from ten to 
twenty-five cents. 

Compass. — This is used in laying off circles or curves. It 
should be of the 8-inch' extension variety, which inscribes a 



126 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

41-inch circle and which costs from seventy-five cents 
to $1.25. 

Caliper Rule.— This should be of the fourfold variety, full 
brass bound, boxwood, 3/^-inch wide, spaced in 3^-, V^q- and 




Caliper. 



Compass or dividers. 
Fig. 109. 



^/i2-inches with drafting scale. The caliper, which works in 
the end of one joint, will be found very convenient in ascertain- 
ing outside diameters of bolts, pins, etc. The cost is about 
fifty cents. 

Monkey-Wrench. — This tool should be about 10 inches long 
with a heavy wrought bar and head and a deeply milled screw. 
It costs forty or fifty cents. 

Claw-Hammer. — A square-faced hammer is sufficient for all 
rough work, but finer work requires a round face that will not 
bruise the wood if this is struck either intentionally or through 




Claw-hammer. 



Fig. 110. 



Monkey-wrench. 



accident. The hammer shown in Fig. 110 may also be used as 
a wrench, but too great leverage . must not be attempted or the 
handle will be cracked or broken. It weighs about eighteen 
ounces, including the handle's weight, and costs from fifty cents 
to $1.00. A claw-hatchet should weigh thirty or thirty-two 
ounces and can be bought for from forty to seventy-five cents. 

Files. — Saw. — These should be triangular and 7 inches long. 
They cost from $1.00 to $1.50 per dozen. 

Wood. — ^A 14-inch half-round rasp will be found very con- 
venient for all rough work and costs from fifty to seventy-five 
cents. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



127 



Grindstone. — This is almost an absolute necessity at every 
station where edged tools are used and is usually supphed upon 
requisition if the nature of the work to be done seems to justify 
such an expenditure. It should have a take-down tubular iron 

frame fitted with seat and 
pedals for use by one man. It 
should also be equipped with 
baU bearings, water cup, and 
guard. The stone should 
be 20 or 22 inches in diam- 
eter, of Berea grit and 2 or 
2)^ inches thick. It weighs 
about sixty pounds, making 
the weight of the entire 





Fig. 111. — Grindstone. 



Fig. 112. — Oilstone mounted 
in block. 



implement approximately eighty-five poimds. The cost is 
about $5.00. 

Whetstone. — This is to be used in finishing the sharpening 
of tools and should be of the tough, fine grit kno\^Ti as an oil 
stone. It should weigh about one pound and should be set 
in a block fitted with a cover. The cost is about fifty cents. 

The Carpenter's Square. — A carpenter's square means no 
more to a man not versed in its use than an instrument whereby 
he may lay off straight Unes, erect perpendiculars to them, and 
measure distances in feet and inches. As a matter of fact, these 
three uses of the square are the simplest to which it can be put. 
Therefore, in order to assist the beginner in mastering a knowl- 
edge of the more important uses of the square a few of these 
wiU be explained here. The most reliable style of square for 
general use is that kno\\Ti as the '' No. 100," which costs from 
$1.50 to $2.00. 

Parts. — These are the '" blade," or the 2-foot length, 2 inches 



128 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



wide; the "tongue," or the narrow arm, 14, 16. or 18 inches in 
length; the " face," or the upper surface of the square as the 
carpenter holds the blade in his left hand and the tongue in his 
right; the " back," or the reverse side; and the " heel," or the 
outer angle formed by the junction of the blade and tongue. 

Graduations. — The outer edge of the face of the blade is gradu- 
ated in ^/i6-inches, the inner edge in 3^-inches, the outer edge 
of the back in ^/12-inches, and the inner edge of the back in 
^/32-inches. 

Graduations on the tongue are the same as on the correspond- 
ing parts of the blade except that on some styles of the No. 100 
the inner edge of the back of the tongue is graduated in ^/-j^q, 
inches. 

Tables and Scales. — The following tables and scales will be 
found in some form on any No. 100 square and the discussions 
covering them have reference only to that style of square: 

Diagonal Scale. — This scale is a square inch divided diago- 
nally as shown in Fig. 113 and is provided for the determination 
of ^/loo-inches. It is found on the face of the square at the 
junction of the blade and the tongue. Primary divisions are 
made by intersections of the diag- 
onal with the parallel lines, such in- 
tersections being ^/jQ-inch apart on 
the latter. The diagonal line start- 
ing at the lower left-hand corner of 
the rectangle strikes the upper edge of 
this figure ^/lo-inch to the right of the 
perpendicular left-hand edge of the 
rectangle. In other words, after cross- 
FiG. 113. — Diagonal scale, ing the square inch it has departed 
^/lo-inch from the perpendicular. 
Thus the first interior parallel line from the bottom is crossed 
at a point equal to one-tenth of one-tenth, or ^/100-inch, 
from the perpendicular fine. The sixth parallel hne from 
the bottom is crossed at a point equal to six-tenths of ^/jo-inch, 
or ^/100-inch from the perpendicular. 

Assuming that the carpenter wishes to ascertain a measure of 
^^/loo-inch, he places one leg of his compass on the intersection 
of the eighth diagonal line from the left with the third interior 
parallel hne from the bottom, the other leg of the compass being 
placed on the point where the third parallel line strikes the per- 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



129 



pendicular left side of the diagram. Thus the compass covers 
Vio-inch plus ^/loo-inch or "/loo-inch. 

^/^QQ-hich Scale. — Like the diagonal scale, this scale is pro- 
vided as a means of ascertaining a measure as small as ^/loo" 
inch and is found on certain styles of the No. 100. It consists 
merely of an inch Une divided into quarters, these into fifths and 
these again into fifths, and is found usually at the inner side 
of the angle on the back of the blade. Owing to the necessarily 
small fine markings and the possibihty of their being obHterated 
by rust or bruises, this scale is not as satisfactory as the diagonal 
scale. 

Board Scale. — On the back of the blade on some styles of the 
No. 100 will be found a series of figures which indicate the 



TIT 



13 



_8i3_ 



:m: 



llllL 

12T10 



^iiiiiiiiiii.iiillii.liiiiii.iiiiiiii 



iiiiiiiiiiiiij 



FiG. 114. — Board Scale. 



number of board feet contained in a 1-inch plank of given length 
and width. This table includes lengths of 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 
and 15 feet, which are found in the column under the 12-inch 
measure at the outer edge of the blade. The 12-foot length is 
omitted because it is evident at once that the contents of any 
inch plank 12 inches wide are equal to the plank's length in feet. 
Other inch measures along the same edge of the blade serve as 
plank widths, the figures in the columns directly beneath them 
indicating the contents, in board feet, of different-sized planks. 
Thus the contents of a plank 6 inches wide and 10 feet long 
are indicated by the figures found where the 10-foot length fine, 
under 12, crosses the 6-inch ^ddth column, under 6, the number 
of board feet in such a plank being five. If the plank is 2 inches 
thick, then five must be multiphed by two; if 6 inches thick, 
then by six, etc. 



130 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



In view of the fact that a large per cent of lumber is cut 16 
feet long, this board scale would be much more convenient if it 
included a 16-foot length. However, the number of board feet 
in a plank exceeding 15 feet in length may be secured by doub- 
ling the contents of a plank half as long. Thus a 16-foot plank 
9 inches wide contains double the number of board feet found 
in an 8-foot plank of the same width, or twelve board feet. 

Rafter Table. — On one style of the No. 100 this table is found 
along the center of the back of the tongue, the various groups 
of figures representing the " run " and " rise " and the length 
of the rafter from the comb to the outer edge of the plate. Thus 

the group 84.85 indicates a run of 60 feet, or inches, a rise of 

the same and a rafter length of 84.85 feet, or inches. At first 
glance it may appear to the inexperienced that since only four- 
teen groups are given (on most 
squares) these provide only for 
fourteen different rafter lengths. 
However, close observation of the 
first thh'teen groups, reading tow- 
ard the right from the end of 
the tongue, will reveal the fact 
that they are arranged in in- 
creasing and finite arithmetical 
progressions. Two of these pro- 
gi-essions represent run and rise, 
and, being equal, are therefore applicable only to rafters 
which are to be cut for a half-pitch roof, which, by the 
way, is the most widely used pitch for roofs. The first term 
is 24, the constant difference is 3, and the last term is 60. 
The third progression, composed of the numbers found to 
the right and midway between the numbers representing 
run and rise, indicates the length of rafters which are to 
cover the length of run and rise shown. The first term is 
33.95, the constant difference is approximately 4.24 and the 
last term is 84.85. These numbers may be used to indicate 
inches, feet, yards, rods, or any other units of length. 

Other lengths than those given may be determined by using 
this table as a basis of computations and dividing or multiplying 
a group according to whether the proposed rafter is to be longer 
or shorter than that indicated in the group. Thus, given a run 




Fig. 115. — Rafter table. 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 131 

and rise of 6 feet, to determine the rafter length: The first group 

94 33 05 

may be used to best advantage; ^ = 4; -^ — = 8.49, the 

length required. 

Or, given a run and rise of 90, to find the rafter length : Exam- 
ination of the various groups shows the eighth to be most con- 

90 

venient; t^ = 2; 2X63.64 = 127.28, the length required. It 

will be seen from this that instead of covering only thirteen dif- 
ferent rafter lengths these thirteen groups cover the subject of 
rafter lengths for equal rim and rise in a very complete manner. 

18 

The fourteenth group, 30, apphes to other pitches. Assum- 
ing 24 as run and 18 as rise, the roof will be ^-pitch, and, like 
the haK-pitch, is a favorite among builders. Reversing the rela- 
tions makes a rise of 24 and a run of 18, or a %-pitch, which 
is seldom used. 

Other rafter lengths covering run and rise of the same rela- 
tive proportions may be obtained in a manner similar to that 
employed and previously described in the matter of rafters to 
be cut for half -pitch roofs. 

It is weU to remember that the use of this table is not con- 
fined exclusively to rafter and brace lengths. It may be apphed 
with equal facility to land measurements and to other work 
involving hypotenuses. 

Pifxh Table. — Some styles of the No. 100 bear a table on the 
back of the blade which shows the pitch of rafters or braces 
after the run and rise have been determined. 

Pitch is determined by dividing the rise by twice the run. 

Formula : 



2 Run 



For example: Given a 10-foot rise and a 15-foot run, to deter- 

10 1 . ^ 

mine the pitch. The sohition follows: — = — pitch. 

2 X lo 3 

Ordinarily 12 is assumed as the run and other numbers as the 
rise, thus: 12-4, 12-6, 12-8, etc., these combinations appearing 
in the first double column of the table shown in Fig. 116. Pitch 



132 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

may be taken at each inch mark along the outer edge of the 
blade. 

Thus, in a quarter-pitch roof having a run of 4 feet, the rafter 
length is found in the quarter-pitch hne under 4, and is 4 feet, 
5%2 inches. In a half -pitch roof (in which the run and rise are 
always equal) if the nm is 3 feet, then the rafter length appears 
in the haK-pitch hne under 3, and is 4 feet, 2^H2 inches. No 
provision is made for lookout lengths. 

Rise for different pitches may be determined by simple opera- 
tions in proportion. For example: In a sixth-pitch roof the 



ii|ii|ii{ii|ii|ii|ii|i{|ii|imi|ii|ii|M{ii|ii|ii|i 

1 PITCH 2 3 4 



5 S" =- 1-2-^1 5 



r3i2'^^,i i 4 - - . 

;3l:!— 21 5 4^^ 

/d.-i— Tl:l 5^=4l 



PAT. JUNES, 1900 



o o , 

to «o _ 



iiiiiiMiMMMiMiM 



M 



T|TT|T 

7 


8 


2(0 • • • • 215 • 


* • 


6 

ill ill 


6 



Fk;. 110.— Pitch tabic. 



Fig. 117. — Octagon rule. 



rise must be to the run as 4 is to 12 (first line). 

In a third-pitch roof it must be to the run as 8 is 

to 12 (thhd hne). 

Octagon Rule. — This is found along the center 
of the face of the tongue and is supphed as a means for laying 
off gauge-lines on a square timber that is to be dressed down 
to an octagon. Assuming that such a timber is 12 inches square, 
lines are drawn across the ends of the timber exactly through 
the center and at right angles to each other, so that each end is 
marked off into four 6-inch squares. The carpenter then sets 
off on either side of each center hne, where it strikes the edge of 
the timber, a number of spaces on the octagon rule equal to the 
timber's width in inches, in this case 12. The points thus de- 
termined indicate the proper place from which to stretch the 
chalk- or gauge-hne. If the timber is 16 inches square then 
sixteen spaces of the octagon rule are used. 

Other Uses. — To Lay off Rafters.— Assuming that a run is 12 
feet and a rise 8 feet and that the rafter length has been deter- 
mined, let the 12-inch mark on the back of the blade represent 
the run and the 8-inch mark on the tongue the rise. As the 
carpenter stands on the proposed long side of the rafter hold- 
ing the blade in his left hand and the tongue in his right, he 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 133 

places the 12-inch mark at the point decided upon for the long 
side or upper edge of the rafter foot. The 8-inch mark is then 
placed dii-ectly over the long edge of the timber and the latter 
is marked along the edge of the blade, this line indicating the 
proper angle at which the foot is to be cut. In laying off the 
upper angle the 8-inch mark is placed immediately over the 
point decided upon as the upper end of the rafter. The 12- 
inch mark on the blade is then brought out flush with the upper 
edge of the rafter and the timber is marked along the edge of the 
tongue. This mark indicates the angle at which the upper end 
of the rafter is to be cut. 

A second method of laying off rafters and at the same time 
marking their length follows: Assuming that the run is 12 feet 
and the rise 8 feet, place the square on the timber so the 12-inch 
mark on the blade and the 8-inch mark on the tongue fall di- 




FiG. 118. — Method of applying square in obtainiag length of rafter. 

rectly over the proposed long side of the rafter. A mark along 
the edge of the blade indicates where the timber must be cut 
to form the rafter foot. The 12-inch mark is then moved along 
the timber to where the 8-inch mark first rested, and this opera- 
tion is repeated as often as is necessary in running the length 
of the rafter, in this case twelve times. A mark made along the 
edge of the tongue at the last application of the square to the 
timber will indicate the angle at which the upper end of the 
rafter is to be cut. The work of laj'-ing off the rafter length 
in this particular case may be shortened by using the figm-es 
24 and 16 on the blade and tongue, respectively, thus requiring 
only six appHcations of the square to the timber. The one rule 
to remember in lajdng off rafters in this manner is to find fii-st 
how many times the distance used as run on the square is con- 
tained in the total run of the roof, and then to apply the square 
this number of times to the timber. It is hardly necessary 



134 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

to say that if the figures at first determined upon as represent- 
ing run and rise on the square are later changed, they must be 
kept relatively the same as the originals. 

To Lay Off a Lookout. — This is merely an extension of the 
rafter and is intended to project over and protect the plate. 



■ Length of Timber over all - 



Length of Rafter as Cut 



Length of 

• Long Side-of-Raftei- 

as Laid Off 



Fig. 119. — To cut rafter lookouts. 



The rafter should 'be cut the same as any other except that 
instead of cutting clear through the timber it is cut from the 
under side only to the intersection of the lines marking the 
angle and the under side of the lookout. Thus, if the lookout 
is to be 2 inches thick the angle should be drawn from a point 
exactly 2 inches in from the long edge. Likewise, the point 
which marks the upper end of the rafter must be set in 2 inches 
from the long edge and the angle drawn through it . (See Fig . 1 1 9 . ) 
To Lay Off Stair Strings. — The run, or the horizontal distance 
from the foot to a point directly beneath the head of the stairs, 




Fig. 120.— Stair string. 



is first obtained. (See Fig. 120.) After the rise of each step 
has been decided upon, the number of steps required for the 
entire string is obtained by dividing the total rise by the rise 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 



135 



of one step. Tread of each step is obtained by dividing the 
run of the string by the number of steps. The square is used 
the same as in laying off rafters or braces. 

To Lay Off Octagons When No Octagon Rule Is Available. — Lay 
the square on the face of the timber, as shown in Fig. 121, with 
the heel flush with one edge of the face and the outer corner of the 




Fig. 121. — Octagon rule. 

blade flush with the opposite edge. Mark the timber where the 
figures 7 and 17 fall' and repeat this operation at the other end 
of the timber. Gauge-hnes drawn between respective points 
thus marked near the ends of the timber will indicate the depth 
to which the timber must be dressed, the rule holding good on 
any size timber and being sufficiently accurate for any rough 
work. A 2-foot rule may be used in a similar manner if no 
square is available. 

To Obtain the Center of a Circle. — Apply the square to the circle 








— 7 


\ 




/ 


\ 
\ 


/ 




\ 


\ 




/ 


\ 




/ 


\ 




/ 


\ 1 


/ 




\ 






...>l 




Fig. 122. — To obtain 
the center of a circle. 



Fig. 123. 



-To obtain the center of a 
rectangle. 



twice as shown in Fig. 122. The circumference js marked where 
the blade and tongue cross it and the pairs of marks are then 
connected as shown in the figure. The intersection of the con- 



136 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

necting lines indicates the center. Care must be taken to see 
that the figures used are the same in both apphcations of the 
square to the circle. 

To Obtain the Center of a Rectangle. — Draw connecting lines 
between diagonally opposite corners as shown in Fig. 123. The 
point of intersection between the two lines indicates the center 
of the rectangle. 

To Erect a Perpendicular without a Square. — It not infre- 
quently happens that an odd job of carpenter work about a 
station requires the erection of a perpendicular when no square 
is available. This may be done by means of a compass or a 
string and pencil as shown in Fig. 124, wherein the point 3 indi- 
cates the place at which the perpendicular is to be erected. 




Fig. 124. — To erect a perpendicular without a square. 



With 3 as a center the arcs 4-5 and 6-7 are laid off, being, of 
course, arcs of the same circle. Their points of intersection with 
the line 1-2 are used as centers from which to lay off 4-5' and 
G'-7'. The hne 8-9 drawn through the points of intersection of 
these two arcs is perpendicular to the line 1-2. 

To Bisect an Angle without a Square. — If this must be done 
and no square is at hand, the compass or string and pencil must 
he used again. Assuming that the angle 2 in Fig. 125 is to be 
bisected, it is used as a center from which to lay off the arc 
4-5, and the points of intersection of this arc with the lines 
1-2 and 3-2 are used as centers from which to lay off arcs 8-9 
and 6-7. The hne 2-10, passing through the intersection of 
arcs 6-7 and 8-9, bisects the angle 2. 

Improvised Square. — A very satisfactory substitute for a 
square is illustrated in Fig. 126. Its construction, however, 
calls for the use of a foot-rule, yardstick, or other similar instru- 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 137 

ment whereby lengths may be laid off. Unless such an instru- 
ment is available it will be almost impossible to fasten the two 
parts together exactly at right angles to each other, and if the 
substitute is to be reUable it is very necessary that this point 
of construction be carefully observed. 

The principle involved in securing perfect right angles between 
the two parts is based on the well-known 47th problem of Euchd. 




Fig. 125. — To bisect an Fig. 126. — Substitute for level- 

angle without a square. plumb. 

Thus, after a certain length, say 6 inches, has been laid off on 
each arm of the instrument, the measurements being taken of 
course from the same point, the square of the hypotenuse of the 
triangle formed must equal the sum of the squares of the lengths 
of the two sides. An easier method is to lay off 6 inches on one 
arm and 8 on the other, after which the two parts are so arranged 
that the hypotenuse is 10 inches. This instrument may also be 
used as a level-plumb if a plumb-bob is attached as shown. 

SHEARS 

These are used in the erection of long, heavy timbers when 
the draft is to be from a point at the ground. Their function 
is to raise the direction of draft, which would otherwise be 
almost parallel with the long dimension of the timber to be erected. 
They should be haK as long as the timber to be erected and of 
a diameter that will prevent buckling under endwise strain. 
They are first laid with the upper ends crossed on the timber, 
the lower ends being placed one on either side of the timber, 
and at a distance from it sufficient to present a suitable base 
as the timber is raised. Shallow holes are dug as receptacles 
for the lower ends and are supplied for the purpose of prevent- 
ing the shears from " kicking out " at the bottom when the 



138 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

draft is applied. The upper ends are fastened securely together 
at a point about 12 inches down. At or near the upper end, 
of the timber a cable is attached and then brought down to 
where the shears cross each other. Here it is securely fastened 
to the shears at a point on the cable far enough from the end 
of the timber to allow the shears to rise at an angle of about 
45 degrees before any draft is appUed to the timber. Tackle 
ropes will not work through the cross of the shears and the 




Fig. 127. — Erection of Umber with shears. 

cable must therefore be supplied with an eye for the reception 
of the hook in the block. A back guy and two side guys are 
then attached to the upper end of the timber, the back guy 
being snubbed about a post and paid out as the timber is raised, 
but the side guys being fastened securely to posts set in Hne 
with the foot of the timber and at right angles to the line of 
draft. Posts for the side guys must be set at a distance from 
the foot of the timber equal to the distance from the foot to 
where the guys are fastened to the timber. The tackle is taken 
in by means of a crab. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 

RIDING 

Since good saddle animals cost from $80.00 to $125.00 per 
head, it is quite to the advantage of an inexperienced man to 
know what constitutes proper and improper riding. 

One important fact he should bear in mind is that it never 
pays, in any circmnstance, to purchase vicious, diseased, crip- 
pled, partially bhnd, or otherwise defective animals. Since a 
large part of his time must be spent in the saddle he will find 
that even the best horses are none too satisfactory, and the use 
of inferior animals will only tend to make his work more un- 
pleasant. 

SADDLING 

Adjusting the Blanket. — Without doubt, one of the most com- 
mon causes of a saddle animal's sore back is an improperly con- 
structed or badly adjusted saddle blanket. The first thing to 
be done in securing a proper adjustment of the blanket is to 
see that both the top and under sides are free from burrs, twigs, 
leaves, and other similar articles that may abrade the animal's 
back or cause sitfasts or galls. (See page 255.) After this precau- 
tion has been observed, the blanlvct should be placed so it will 
fit squarely and evenly under the saddle, allowing as nearly as 
possible an equal pressure along either side of the animal's back- 
bone downward to a distance somewhat below the edge of the 
saddle bars or even to the lower edges of the skirts. If the 
blanket is one that must be folded several times care must be 
taken to see that the edges of the folds do not come where great 
pressure of the saddle wiU occur. These folds should be made 
to fall below or to the front or rear of the saddle skirts. Heavily 
ribbed blankets require special attention in being so placed as 
to bring the ribs parallel with the skirts. Any blanket that has 
been wet and then allowed to dry quickly and become stiff should 
be worked phant and scraped clean of all incrustations of dirt 
and sweat. 

Placing the Saddle. — After the blanket has been properly 
adjusted, seize the saddle horn or fork with the right hand, and 

139 



140 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

the lower front corner of the near skirt with the left, then swing 
the saddle upward over the animal's back to a height that will 
permit it to be lowered squarely on the blanket. This opera- 
tion is performed from the near side of the animal. The saddle 
should not be lowered to the blanket with violence nor should 
it be swung in such a manner as to cause the off stirrup or the 
loose end of the cinch to strike the animal a severe blow on the 
leg or side. If saddling is done in this manner, any horse will 
soon acquire the habit of shying out from under the saddle as 
it descends. If the saddle has been properly placed, the off 
skirt and stirrup and the cinch will fall into their proper posi- 
tions, and the saddle is then ready to be cinched. 

Tightening the Cinch. — The front cinch of a double-rigged 
saddle is fastened first. To do this, the left hand is thrust be- 
neath the animal's body, the cinch is secured and brought up to 
the near side, and the latigo is then threaded through the cinch 
ring from the inner side vnih the right hand. Afterward, the 
latigo is passed upward and through the ring in the rig from the 
outer side, downward again through the cinch ring from the inner 
side, then upward and tied into the rig, as shown in Fig. 228. 
If the latigo is made to buckle, the buclde-tongue is thrust 
through it, and the loose end is then disposed of by hanging it 
in the loop provided for that purpose, just under the near side 
of the fork. Care must be taken to see that all slack in the 
latigo between the rig and the cinch has been taken up, or the 
buckle-tongue may work loose and allow the saddle to slip. 

After the front cinch has been fastened the rear cinch is 
treated in a similar manner except that it is not drawn as tightly. 
If a cinch fastener (see Fig. 11) is used, the latigo must be 
drawn tightly enough to force the lower end of the fastener 
lever outward against the Hp of the loop. Unless this is done 
the cinch ring may sUp from the loop and thus leave the saddle 
without any fastening whatever. 

Neither cinch of a double rig should be fastened too loosely. 
As a general rule, the front cinch may be given an extra tighten- 
ing after the animal has been ridden 300 or 400 yards. By that 
time the blanket is firmly settled and the animal, if he is a 
" sweller," has resumed his normal girth, so the saddle may be 
fastened for a long ride. The cinch should not be drawn up 
close against the animal's elbow joints but should rest to the 
rear of them at a distance of from 1 to 2 inches. 



GENEIiA^L FIELD WORK 141 

It is seldom necessary to draw the rear cinch very tiglit. 
When this is done the animal suffers more or less inconvenience 
and discomfort in breathing and wiU in most instances object 
strenuously to such treatment. This cinch should be drawn 
snugly against the body, however, and not left loose enough to 
rub against the ends of the hau* and produce a tickling sensation. 

Removing the Saddle.— The rear cinch is loosened first and the 
latigo end is either thrown upward across the saddle or else hung 
in the loop provided for it. When this has been done the front 
cinch is loosened and the latigo is disposed of in a similar manner. 
This disposition of the latigoes obviates the possibihty of their 
becoming entangled in brush or about the horseman's legs as 
he moves away from the horse. 

In removing the saddle the horn or fork is seized with the 
right hand and the blanket is caught by the left. By thus 
securing the blanket it is kept from the ground, where it might 
accumulate dirt or burrs. When a firm hold has been secured 
at the fork the saddle is dragged from the animal's back by 
puUing it toward the near side. It is then laid on its side or 
stood on end, fork downward. If thro\\Ti flat down on the 
skirts the latter soon lose their shape and curl in or out or other- 
wise become twisted and wTinkled. Moreover, the skirt linings 
may pick up twigs or bmTS or become damp or dusty. The 
blanket should be thrown, sweaty side downward, across the 
saddle. Both blanket and saddle should be placed in the shade 
during hot, dry weather. 

Mounting. — This operation should always be conducted from 
the near side and only from the off side when circumstances 
absolutely demand it. Nothing indicates a man's inexperience 
with horses or emphasizes it more strongly than his attempt to 
mount from the off side, which usually results in disaster when 
western horses are to be ridden. They are seldom trained to 
expect such handling, and are naturally more or less puzzled 
or surprised when the inexperienced man introduces the novelt}'. 
Practicalh' all of the saddle animals found on the farms of the 
East and South, and in manj^ parts of the North, may be m.ounted 
with equal f acihty from either side, but they are so trained merely 
as a matter of convenience and the rule should never be assumed 
as a general one. It is well to learn to mount from either side 
in order to be prepared for emergencies, but it is never advisable 
to try exiDeriments with strange horses. 



142 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Various styles of mounting prevail in different localities, and 
each has its advantages and disadvantages according to the 
animal to be ridden and to the manner in which it has been 
trained or " broken." 

Cheeking. — This method is common to all parts of the West and 
is the safest method by which a fractious or viciously incHned 
animal may be mounted. The horseman secures a firm grip 
of the near bridle cheek with his left hand and with the right 
then turns the near stirrup forward until he can insert his left 
foot in it as he stands facing almost rearward. When his left 
foot has been firmly placed in the stirrup he releases the latter 
and then grasps tlie reins and saddle horn with the same hand; 
in some cases the reins are held with the bridle cheek in the 
left hand. He hoists himself into the saddle by a muscular 
effort of the right arm and left leg. If the animal attempts to 
pitch while it is being mounted it is prevented from doing so 
by the reins held at the saddle horn, or drawn in with the left 
hand. These should be drawn in short enough to hold the 
animal's head well up. No horse can pitch until he can lower 
his head. 

If it makes a sudden lunge the grip on the bridle cheek serves 
automatically to hold the horseman near the animal and pull 
it under him rather than allow it to move in an opposite direc- 
tion. This method of mounting also keeps the horseman well 
to the front and out of the danger zone if the animal kicks. 
If it is impatient and attempts to start unmounted, it is forced 
to travel in a circle about the horseman, and the latter is thus 
materially assisted in his efforts to mount. 

Another method of mounting common to the West is to seize 
the mane with the left hand. Except for this difference the 
method is the same as cheeking. 

Vaulting. — This method of mounting is used chiefly on moving 
animals. The rider secures a firm grip of the saddle horn with 
one or both hands, uses his elbows as a fulcrum against the 
horse's side or the side of the saddle, and thus assists himself in 
springing high enough to pass his right leg over the cantle and 
to alight square^ in the saddle seat. 

This is the quickest method of mounting that can be used, 
and it may be employed to great advantage when a swiftly 
moving animal is to be mounted. In such a case, if the grip 
at the horn is secure, the momentum of the horse will almost 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 143 

throw the horseman into his seat if he exerts only the slightest 
effort in springing upward from the ground. Care must be 
taken, however, not to spring too forcibly or the horseman will 
invariably throw himself completely over the horse. Such an 
accident may appear quite improbable, but as a matter of fact 
the novice will throw himself too far rather than not far enough, 
and unless the saddle is well cinched and his grip at the horn 
is very secure he may experience a serious fall. 

" Climbing On." — Throughout the East, in some portions of 
the South, and in many parts of the North and central West, a 
very common method of mounting is to insert the left foot in 
the proper stirrup, seize the reins and the saddle horn with the 
left hand and the cantle with the right, and then " climb on " 
a horse. This method of mounting is perfectly safe when a well- 
trained animal is to be ridden, but should never be attempted 
on a spirited or half-trained horse. 

Position. — The inexperienced rider invariably assumes an un- 
necessarily stiff and unnatural position in the saddle, and this 
results in his extreme lameness for several days. Moreover, such 
a method of riding, b^ reason of the resultant unyielding seat, 
has a tendency to tire a horse and may even have serious effects 
upon one so ridden. The only muscles in the rider's body that 
must be held in a reasonably prolonged degree of intensity are 
those which enable him to maintain a thigh grip against the 
sides of the saddles. This grip is necessary in order to prevent 
him from being unseated in case his mount shies suddenly or 
unexpectedly, or whirls or makes a sudden swerve from the gen- 
eral direction of travel. It also assists him in maintaining his 
seat at other times and prevents, to a great extent, the unpleasant 
sensation of " bouncing " when a horse travels otherwise than at 
a walk. The action of this set of muscles soon becomes invol- 
untary and requires no attention on the part of the rider. ^ 

The English style of riding, known as " posting," where the 
rider raises his body from the saddle at regular intervals through- 
out an animal's progress, is to be avoided. It is tiresome to the 
rider, injurious to his mount, and can not be justified by any 



1 Frequent instances have occurred where greatly fatigued or sleep- 
worn cavah-ymen, and others whose duties require continual riding, 
have been known to fall soirnd asleep and in this condition maintain 
their seats throughout miles of travel. 



144 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

rule of practice or elegance. Aside from these facts, it is even 
dangerous in fast riding over rough country or in brush. 

Another common practice among a certain class of careless 
riders is to " ride the stiiTups," i.e., stand in them in such a 
way as to remove the weight of the body from the saddle seat. 
It is never employed by the best riders, except occasionally in 
very rough traveUng, such as fast downhill trotting or over un- 
even ground where an animal may be expected to fall and in 
doing so compel instant dismounting. 

Another practice to be avoided is " riding one stirrup." In 
doing this the rider removes one foot from the stirrup, raises 
the corresponding thigh into the saddle seat, and rests prac- 
tically all of the weight of his body on the foot in the other 
stirrup. On long, hard rides an occasional change to this posi- 
tion for short intervals is restful to both the rider and his mount, 
but when maintained for extended periods it usually results in 
injuries to the animal's back. This is due, of course, to unequal 
pressure of the saddle. For the same reason the practice of 
crooking one knee about the saddle horn and riding sidewise 
for long intervals is likewise bad. 

The easiest position, and one that produces a minimum of 
discomfort for both horse and rider, is a firm thigh grip and a 
reasonably loose seat, the backbone kept firmly upright but 
not rigid. If the animal is inclined to buck or pitch the thigh 
grip is especially advantageous. In such a case the rider should 
lean well back of the perpendicular in order that the momentum 
created by the animal's sudden starts forward may be counter- 
balanced. An attempt to hold the animal's head up and thus 
prevent it from bucking usually results in the animal throwing 
itseK. The common idea that a horse is assisted in recovering 
its equihbrium if the reins are held tight is erroneous. At such 
times it needs all possible freedom of the neck muscles. 

If a saddle animal develops the habit of rearing and falling 
back while under the saddle, great care must be exercised in 
dismounting as quickly as possible. This may be done by plac- 
ing one hand either side of the saddle horn, against the fork, and 
springing backward from the saddle; or the rider may dismount 
to one side. In either case he should spring from the saddle 
with sufficient force to throw himseK clear of the animal and 
prevent it from falling upon him. At the instant the animal 
starts to regain its feet he should remount; otherwise such an 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 145 

animal, believing it has at last found a means of ridding itself 
of the rider's weight, will persist in the habit. 

Reins. — These are held in the left hand, leaving the right 
free for the use of a rope, quirt, or other articles. Usually reins 
are tied together, although many riders prefer them separate, 
or '•' spht." When used in the work of roping stock they are 
cither in one piece or else tied together so they may be hung 
over the animal's neck or the saddle horn and not interfere 
with the use of the rope or the progress of the horse. The length, 
however, in general field work, is a matter of personal opinion, 
and nothing more definite on the subject can be offered 
here. 

Reining. — This is simply the operation of guiding a horse. 
A very common method, especially common to all parts of the 
West, is known as " neck " reining. By this method a horse is 
turned to the right by laying the near rein against the left side 
of his neck just before the shoulders. He is tui-ned to the left 
by a similar pressure of the off rein on the right side of his neck. 

In many sections of the West, where stock must be handled 
from horseback, saddle animals are trained to stop when the 
reins are dropped to their necks. Ordinarily they are started 
again by a thrust with the spurs. 

Another common method of guiding and stopping saddle 
animals is known as " legging." By this method the rider turns 
his mount to the left by pressure of his knee against that side, 
or, if personal Hkes dictate, he trains the animal to turn in the 
same direction by pressiu-e of the other knee. The animal is 
stopped by pressure of both knees simultaneously. 

In most parts of the East and South a saddle animal is turned 
}jy a pull at the bit on the side to which it is to turn. 

Dismounting.^A practical knowledge of this operation is per- 
haps more important than knowing how to mount, and, like the 
latter, is accompHshed in different localities in different ways. 
The safest method is to grasp the saddle horn firmly with the 
right hand, holding the reins securely in the left; the right foot 
is then withdrawTi from its stirrup, the left foot is moved back- 
ward till the balls of the toes rest in the stirrups, the right leg 
is passed backward over the cantle and downward to the rear 
of the left leg, and the left foot is finally released from the stirrup 
by tipping the heel downward. This enables the horseman to 
ahght squarely upon both feet at the same time, and still leaves 



146 HANDBOOK ]^E RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

him facing in the same direction in which the animal has been 
or still may be traveling. 

By holding the reins in his left hand he is able to check his 
horse's speed, while with his right at the horn he steadies him- 
self until a proper equihbrium is obtained. He is also held well 
to the front and out of danger of being trampled upon or 
kicked. 

This is the safest and about the only practicable method that 
can be used in dismounting from a rapidly moving animal. 
In such a case the rider must, of course, balance himself tem- 
porarily against the horse's left side before he releases his left 
foot. Very Httle practice will enable him to dismount while the 
horse travels at breakneck speed. 

It may appear to the inexperienced field man that a knowl- 
edge of such a method of dismounting would seldom be put into 
effect, but when he considers that cattle or horses may have to 
be roped and then tied down before they can arise, or that a 
stray sheep or lamb must be captured and its earmarks read, 
or a falling or rearing horse may compel him to dismount as 
quickly as possible, he will see that such knowledge will not 
come amiss. 

Another method of dismounting, particularly common to the 
South and known in the West as " backing out," is to grasp 
the saddle horn and the reins with the left hand and the cantle 
of the saddle with the right after the right leg has been thrown 
backward over the cantle, then, turning the body till the rider 
faces the animal, dismount by stepping down backward from 
the stirrup. This is safe enough with gentle and well-trained 
animals, but should not be used if fractious or partly broken 
animals are being ridden. The possibilities of having a foot 
hang in the stirrup and of an animal's sudden attempt to escape 
are too important to overlook. 

Throughout the West saddle animals are usually trained to 
stand without being tied, the rider simply throwing his reins 
to the ground at the time he dismounts and making no further 
effort to confine the animal. It is very important that this 
custom be borne in mind, since if such animals are left with the 
reins hanging about the saddle horn, they frequently stray away 
or may even bolt and run to a distance that makes their capture 
a matter of considerable difficulty. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 147 



PACKING 



In many sections of the West, where travel facilities are 
limited, supplies and equipment must be carried from place to 
place on pack animals. This is not as awkward a means of 
conveyance as it may seem. If the packer understands his 
work thoroughly and is possessed of considerable ingenuity he 
will have little or no difficulty in fastening a pack so it may be 
carried for a long distance. The load may be a cook stove, 
telephone wire or poles, fence posts, grain, bedding, fire-fighting 
tools, or water, or it may consist of a niunber of other articles, 
all of which may be transported in a very satisfactory manner 
if properly loaded and secured to the pack saddle. 

Three important things to remember are: (1) A load that 
must be carried for a considerable distance should not exceed 
two hundred pounds in weight; ^ (2) The weight must be equally 
divided between the tvv^o sides of the pack; (3) The load must 
be firmly tied to the saddle but in such a manner as to permit 
quick unloading if the pack animal falls, becomes entangled, or 
otherwise requires imutnediate rehef from the load. A pack 
weighing one hundred' pounds is much more wearisome to an 
animal than the weight of a man weighing one hundred and 
fifty pounds. This is due to the fact that the pack is " dead " 
w^eight and either maintains the same position at all times or 
else sHps about over the saddle with sudden, unyielding move- 
ments that soon tire the animal. If the man is a reasonably 
good rider he may shift his position and weight in such a way 
as to assist an animal in traveling over rough country. " One- 
side " packs, or packs so placed that the greater part of the 
weight is on one side, soon turn unless very securely tied. If 
they can not turn they soon injure an animal's back. 

CompKcated loiots to be used in packing are not only diffi- 
cult to tie, but they may even prove disastrous if a fallen animal 
is to be quickly reheved of its pack. The simplest knots that 
will hold are the ones to be used, possible opinions of old packers 
to the contrary notwithstanding. 

1 An instance of unusual physical power in a pack animal is of au- 
thentic record in central Arizona, where a 700-poimd piece of mining 
machinery was carried a distance of 34-mile by a mule that weighed 
nine himdred poimds. The animal experienced no apparent ill effects 
from such exertion. 



148 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 




Fig. 128. 



HITCHES USED 

Grain Hitch. — This hitch is not required if panniers are to 
be used. Its use is confined chiefly to fastening sacks of grain 
or other loose articles to the pack saddle. Its construction as 

applied to the near side of the 
saddle is shown in Fig. 128. 
The off side is tied in a similar 
manner, the rope being 30 feet 
long and 3^-inch in diameter. 
This is somewhat longer than 
is absolutely necessary in tying 
the hitch, but being of that 
length, if the loose ends are so 
long that they can not readily 
be disposed of otherwise, they 
may be cut off and used as 
halter or tie ropes. It is given 
a clove hitch about the front fork of the saddle as shown in Fig. 
129, the ends emerging from the front side of the hitch. A half- 
hitch is then taken about the rear fork, as shown in Fig. 130, the 
off end of the rope being used fii-st and the near end in a similar 





Fig. 129. — Clove hitcli 
about front fork of 
pack saddle. Front 



Fig. 130. — Loops about rear fork of 
pack saddle. Rear view. 



manner later. The packer then shoulders the article to be 
packed, raises the length of rope passing from the front to the 
rear fork, and drops the load between it and the saddle, the 
loose end of the half-hitch passing up under and around the 
sack as shown in Fig. 128. This is fastened to the horizontal 
length of rope as shown in the same figure and the end is left 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



149 



loose until the opposite side is loaded, the off side frequently 
being loaded first. The horizontal length of rope can best be 
tightened by pulKng downward on the half-hitch. The two 
loose ends of rope are tied together after both sides of the pack 
have been loaded. After the ends have been crossed over each 
other a half-hitch in one may be turned about a loop in the 
other, thus providing a knot that may be released instantly by 
a pull at the loose end of the rope. 

It should be remembered that the clove hitch about the front 
fork can not be shpped and that the rope must therefore be 
loosened at the rear fork first. This will permit the horizontal 
lengths to be pulled out far enough from the pack to let the 
pack fall through the loop to the ground. 

Diamond Hitch. — There are a number of varieties of the dia- 
mond hitch, but only the one most widely used can be discussed 
here. It is suggested that the beginner familiarize himself with this 





Fig. 131. — Top view of dia- 
mond hitch. 



Fig. 132. — First position of 
lash rope. Near side. 



form first and that he learn other forms after he has mastered it. 
A common mistake made by amateur packers is their propensity 
for trying to learn all the different forms of hitches used in pack- 
ing before they are thoroughly versed in the use of one. 

The diamond hitch described here and illustrated in Fig. 131 
can be apphed without difficulty by one man and will be found 
very convenient in fastening dowTi the top pack. This part 
of the pack consists of bedding, tents, etc., usually carried over 
the grain or other articles confined by the grain hitch, and care 
must be taken to see that it is evenly balanced. Bedding should 



150 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

be wrapped in a tarpaulin or tent before it is packed. The can- 
vas protects it from rain and brush. 

The lash rope should be 30 feet long and 3^-inch in diameter. 
If there is good reason to beUeve that there will be no occasion 
to use it except for packing purposes then the end may be made 
fast to the ring in the lash cinch by means of an eye splice. 
Otherwise it should be merety tied into the ring so it can be re- 
moved with less difficulty. When the pack is ready to be lashed 
down the lash cinch is thrown over it from the near side, the 
packer catches the lash hook as it swings upward from beneath 
the animal's body, hangs it over the lash rope with the open 
side of the hook to the rear, and then passes the rope upward 
along itseK to the top of the pack, allowing 2 or 3 feet of the 
end to remain on the near side. This is the first po- 
sition of the lash rope and is illustrated in Fig. 132, 
He then takes a bight, or bend, in the second length 
about the first length at the top of the pack as 
shown in Fig, 133, passing the second twice around 
the first and from the upper side. The loose end is 
passed to the rear, downward, forward under the off 
grain pack, upward around the off forward part of 
the top pack, through the bight, downward around 
/qq_ t^® ^6^1" forward part of the top pack, rearward 
Second po- under the near grain pack, and upward around the 
sition of near rear part of the top pack to the first length 
lash rope, of rope over the pack. It is tied here in an over- 
hand loop knot and the hitch is completed as shown 
in Fig, 131, To be effective the hitch must be drawn very tight. 
This is done by beginning at the hook and successively tight- 
ening each length. 

Axes, picks, rakes, shovels, crowbars, tripods and other similar 
instruments may be thrust through under the ropes after the 
hitch has been completed and made fast. This not only holds 
them more securely, but also serves to tighten the ropes about 
the pack. Instances may occur, of course, where such a method 
of loading these articles is not desirable, and in such cases they 
must be placed on the pack before the ropes are tightened and 
tied. Care must be taken to see that the forward ends do not 
project upward or forward to an extent that may cause them 
to hang in brush or against low branches. 

The ax should always be so fastened to the pack that it may 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



151 



be removed quickly and without difficulty. Picket ropes, hob- 
bles, bells, morrals, canteens, and other such articles may be 
distributed about over the pack at the most convenient points, 
but none of them should be allowed to hang loose and dangle 
or hang in brush. 

The hitch is released by pulling the loop from the overhand 
knot. This usually loosens the rope enough to permit removal 




Rear 



Tightened Hitch , 




Rear 



-Pirst Position 



Fig. 134. 



-Top view of a variation of the Diamond hitch, 
portions of rope come under the pack.) 



(Shaded 



of the hook, after which the rope may be thrown off at one side. 

During his first leisure moments after unpacking the packer 

should see that his pack ropes are aU untangled and 

neatly coiled for use the next time. Badly tangled 

or misplaced ropes are a great inconvenience when 

hurried packing -becomes necessary or when bad 

weather makes the work unpleasant. A variation 

of the diamond hitch is shown in Fig. 134. This 

is a favorite hitch among wood packers, and aside 

from being especially effective for such use is so 

quickly and easily appHed that Httle time is wasted. 

It differs from the first form of the diamond hitch 

shown in that each successive length of rope is 

tightened as it is reached. The cinch is usually 

passed beneath the animal's body from the near side, thus 

allowing the final tightening to be done from the front rather 

than at the rear of the animal. 




ibZ HANDBOOK FOR EANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Squaw Hitch. — This hitch also requires the services of two 
men. In one form of the hitch the rope is double at about one- 
third its length and the loops 1, 2, and 3, shown in Fig. 135, are 





Fig. 136.— Half-hitch. 



Fig. 137. — Cross hitch. 



placed in position on top of the pack and held there by one 
man while the other disposes of the lengths 4, 5, and 6 by passitig 
them beneath the animal's body and making them fast as indi- 




FiG. 138. — Bed roll ready for transportation by wagon. 



cated. The hitch is not only difficult to construct properly but 
it is also too cumbersome and complicated to prove satisfactory 
otherwise. 

Half-Hitch. — This is shown in Fig. 136 and consists merely of 
the half -hitches 3, 4, and 5 placed about the tent or bed roll. 
Ends 1 and 2 are tied together beneath the animal. The hitch 
is very unsatisfactory when poorly trained or half-broken pack 
animals are used. It usually allows the pack to turn sidewise 



GENEKAL FIELD WORK 153 

or slip forward or backward, and thus requires continual read- 
justment. 

Cross Hitch. — This hitch is tied at the top of the pack as 
shown in Fig. 137. The lengths of rope 3 and 4 pass beneath 
the animal's body. It possesses the same disadvantages as the 
half hitch. 

WAGONS 

The use of wagons by field men in the Forest Service is very 
limited except in transporting camp equipment or supplies in 
reconnoissance work or on extended camping trips and in hauling 
provisions, feed, and other supplies into camp or to Ranger stations. 

Occasionally, however, they may be required in improvement 
work such as road- or trail-building or construction of telephone 
lines and other similar work. They are seldom purchased out- 
right but are frequently hired for temporary use unless the field 
man has one of his owti which he is willing to use in official work. 
Nevertheless it is well for him to know what type of wagon is 
best fitted for the work to be done and to secure strong, rehable 
wagons in preference to others that may require constant re- 
pairing. It is seldom possible to find an ideal wagon for hire, 
but if one is selected as nearly as possible in accordance with 
the following suggestions it will give general satisfaction: 

Type. — Since practically all wagon work done by the Forest 
Service is in rough, mountainous country a regulation moun- 
tain wagon is most desirable. This is of the narrow-track style, 
being 4 feet 6 inches from center to center of the tires on the 
ground. 1 It carries a 38-inch bed, weighs approximately twelve 
hundred pounds and has a safe car- 
rying capacity of thirty-five hundred 
pounds. 

Size. — The size of a wagon is de 
termined by the outside diameter of 
the skein at its shoulder and by the Fig. 139.— Skein, 

length of surface presented to the 

boxing of the hub. Thus a 3 by 9 wagon, which is the best size 
for general work, has skeins 3 inches in diameter at the shoul- 
der with a 9-inch bearing length. See Fig. 139. The size 
will be found stenciled on the back of the rear bolster. 

^ A wide-track wagon measures 5 feet from center to center of the 
tires on the ground. 




154 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Wheels. — Regular size narrow tires for 3 by 9 mountain wagon 
wheels are 13^ inches wide and % inch thick. They may or 
may not be secured to the felloes by means of tire rivets. The 
latter are inserted between the felloes and the tire and are rivet- 
headed at each end. Some manufacturers claim that they are 
detrimental to a wheel by reason of the fact that in hot, dry 
weather, during which the felloes shrink and the tires expand, 
they have a tendency to spht and batter the felloes as the tire 
is forced side wise on rough roads. They also assert that the 
rivet heads soon wear away, allow the rivets to work out, and 
thus cause the tires to loosen more quickly. These objections 
to tire rivets or bolts are logical so far as they go, but when 
tires are so loose as to allow the rivet heads to batter the felloes 
they should be reset as soon as possible. Moreover, especially 
in regions remote from repair shops, it is much better to have 
a loose tire secured t© the felloes than to have it run off and allow 
a wheel to be broken do-wn. 

Felloes and hubs, the latter well honed, should be of seasoned 
white oak {Quercus alba) . Spokes should be of seasoned second 
growth white oak or hickory (Hicoria ovata or alba). The regu- 
lar number of spokes in a wheel is twelve front and fourteen 
rear, but those which bear f om-teen front and sixteen rear are 
about one-sixth stronger than the others. A wheel height of 
44 inches front and 52 rear will be found most satisfactory for 
general work. 

Two very widespread though erroneous ideas with reference 
to wheels are that when a wagon sets on approximately level 
ground the front end of the bed is lower than the rear, or that, 
in the same position of the wagon, the rear end of the bed is 
lower. The first is no doubt based on the supposition that the 
fore wheels, being smaller in diameter than the rear wheels, 
necessarily lower that end of the bed. The second probably 
originates in failure to observe the difference in diameter of fore 
and rear wheels, and is merely an assumption that since the 
front end of the bed comes even with or above the wheel top, 
while the rear end is considerably lower than the rear wheel 
top, the rear end of the bed is consequently lower. As a matter 
of fact, except when the construction has been for some par- 
ticular purpose, a wagon gear is usually so constructed that 
when it sets on level ground the bed is also level. Fore wheels 
are made smaller than rear wheels in order not only to provide 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 155 

room for the sand board and usually heavier rocking bolster, 
but also to facilitate turning the wagon about in close 
quarters. 

The smaller chcumference of low wheels allows them to drop 
into ruts over which higher wheels pass with greater faciUty, 
and since less leverage is provided by the short spokes such 
wheels make a wagon pull harder on rough roads than if it were 
fitted with high wheels. 

Dish. — Each wheel should have a dish equal to one-half the 
width of a regular narrow tire, and the tires should be strong 
enough to maintain such a dish. Wheels without dish are no 
stronger than the spoke tendons in the hubs, and a very Ught 
load, or even the weight of an empty bed, carried over a rough 
road may force the hubs through. 

Wagons should not be hu'ed if their tires have been set so 
often as to produce excessive dish. In such wheels the spokes 
do not stand perpendicularly under the load and can not there- 
fore support a heavy weight. Moreover, they cause the rims to 
bind in ruts, they destroy the proper pitch and gather, and they 
are generally unsatisfactory to use. 

Gather. — This is provided for in fitting the skein to the axle. 
The object of such construction is to force the hub toward 
rather than away from the shoulder of the skein when a heavy 
load is being carried. Otherwise the wheels of the same pair 
would have a tendency to pull away from each other and thereby 
offer much greater resistance to the road. Properly gathered 
wheels of the same pair are from 3 to 4 inches nearer each other 
at their forward circumference than at their rear circumference. 

Pitch. — This term is kno-^Ti in some locahties as " tread," or 
it may be designated as "set." It has reference to the differ- 
ence in distance between the lower circumference of the same 
pair of wheels as compared with the upper circmnference, in 
properly pitched wheels about the same as in gather. When it 
is measured from outside to outside the distance between the 
rims at the point nearest the ground should be the same as that 
just under the hub. Pitch is also provided for in fitting the 
skeins to the axle. It not only brings the weight of the load 
more in a perpendicular fine over the bearing portion of the 
wheels, but it also serves to hold the hubs against the shoulders 
of the skeins and counteracts the wheels' tendency to run off. 

Track. — This term has reference to the action of the rear 



156 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

wheels in following the track of the fore wheels. It is at once 
apparent that unless the construction is such as to permit this 
the rear wheels will offer greater resistance to the road and the 
draft must be increased accordingly. Difficulty in this respect 



Dusfe Collar 



Tap 

Lag Scre-w ^ 

holding Skein 
to Axlfl 



HtA Baud' 




Hub Baud 

Method of attaching skein to wood axle. 




Method of attaching skein to steel axle. 
Fig. 140. 

may be due to a crooked reach or tongue, excessive dish may 
be present in one or more wheels, the skeins may not be prop- 
erly fitted to the axle, or the boxing may not be squarely set 
in the hubs. 

If the wheels track and have the proper pitch and gather a 
wagon may be run over a smooth road without taps so long 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



157 



as the direction of travel is forward. The gather will of coiu'se 
force the wheels off soon after the wagon is started backward. 

Skeins. — These should be given a very thorough examination 
before a wagon is hired. If it has had considerable wear this 




Top view. 



End of Hound 

Tongue Bolt 

Lqwer Hound Brace 
Upper Hound Brace 
Stay Chain Hook 




A.ugle St<?el 
one piece Hounds 



Bottom view. 
Fig. 141. — Front gear. (Steel axle.") 



will be apparent at the shoulder. It wiU be especiaUy promi- 
nent at the upper side of the shoulder and the lower side of the 
point if the pitch has been lost. Lost gather will be indicated 



158 HANDBOOK FOE KANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

by wear at the rear side of the shoulder and the front side of 
the point. 

Skeins are attached to axles as shown in Fig. 140. 

GEARS 
Hounds.— This is sometimes spelled " hawns," and this form 
of the word will be frequently met with in catalogs of hardware 



Sway bar 



Upper hound brace 




\ 



Stay chain hook 
Lower hound brace 



Top view. 



Upper hound brace 



Hound end 
Tongue bolt 
Lower hound brace 
Sand board 
^^^^— Stay chain hook 




Bottom view. 
Fig. 141a.— Front gear. (Wood axle.) 

and woodenware. They should be of seasoned hickory or white 
oak and weU koned and braced. See Figs. 141 and 141a. The 
front end of the rear hounds should be bolted securely together 
through the reach plate as shown in Fig. 142. Angle-steel bent 
one-piece front hounds, wood filled before the axle, are prefer- 
able to all-wood square hounds by reason of the fact that there is 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 159 

less sui'face exposed to brush and stumps. Both front and rear 
hounds should be well " bushed " or ironed at all points where 
wear of the reach will occur. This of course puts all the wear 




on the reach, but when it becomes worn to a degi'ee that requires 
a new reach this may be secm-ed ^^dth much less trouble and 
expense than hounds or any of their parts. 

Front Bolster. — This should be of hickory or white oak, well 
ironed, and fitted with hollow steel stakes into which longer 
wooden stakes, kno\^Ti as " false " stakes, may be thrust if high 
loads of poles, posts, or similar articles are to be hauled. If fitted 
with iron-bound wooden stakes the irons should be rounded at 
the lower ends, tlu'eaded, and bolted through the bolster rather 
than bent at right angles and fastened to the upper side of it. 
The hollow steel stakes are illustrated in Fig. 143. The lower 
bolster plate, attached to the sand board as shoy\Ti in Fig. 144, 
should be equipped with a catch which locks it to the upper 
plate and prevents the king bolt from being withdravvTi bj^ the 
bolster if a tightly- fitting bed is to be removed. It should also 
have a raised center as shown in the same figure. This prevents 
wear or breakage of the king bolt and serves to steady a top-heavy 
load. This bolster is kno^Ti also as a " rocking " bolster. 

Rear Bolster. — This bolster is rigidly clipped to the rear axle 
as sho\sTi in Fig. .146. Other fittings, except lower plates which 
these bolsters do not have, should be the same as for the front 
bolster. 

Brake. — A regular mountain brake is shown in Fig. 146 and 
this style should be used in all mountain hauling. The blocks 



160 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

should be kept in good repair and should be heavy enough to 
withstand the hardest usage. They are fastened in the shoes 
by being beveled inward from the rear edges. The most satis- 



Raised Center 



False False stake 
stake. Inserted. 






Fig. 143. 




Fig. 144.- 

Stake iron- 


-Bolster plates 


fl 






Stake- 


1|l|»kStake ring 










■ 1 Ply Stake brace 




'I 1 1 1 1 1 M ' 


,il!l|iiiii' 


411111 


TTn Wtmv 




I. A 1 ' 






lllflllllll 




^^^^^^^y 






^^^^Truss Rod 



Fig. 145. — Front or "rocking" bolster. 

factory and convenient method of keeping them in good condi- 
tion is to nail pieces of 1- or 2-inch plank to the faces and thereby 
prevent direct contact of the blocks with the tires. Other pieces 



GENEEAL FIELD WORK 



IGl 



may be nailed on as the old ones are worn through or torn off. 
Iron shoes will be found preferable to wooden shoes, as the latter 
catch grit that soon becomes imbedded in them and causes 



Brake Roller 



Stake Iron 
Stake Ring 



Skein Shoulder 




Cross Bar Hanger 
Eye Bolt 



Fig. 146. — Rear gear with mountain brake. 



[Brake Lever_ 



^rake Rod 



severe wear on the tires. Jump welds in the brake roller are to 
be avoided, as they may break at a critical moment and cause 
serious damage to the wagon, team, or driver. The roller is 
connected with the brake lever, shown 
in Fig. 147, by m^ans of what is 
known as the " brake rod." If gear 
hauling is to be done a pole is thrust 
into the rings of the roller arm and 
serves the purpose of a brake lever. 

Bed brakes with two and three bars 
are shown in Fig. 148. They can not 
be used in gear hauHng. 

Tongue. — Straightness and absolute 
soundness are the two chief require- 
ments in a wagon tongue. One that 
crooks to either side or is improperly 
set in the hounds has a tendency to 

lead the fore wheels out of the road and is a continual source of an- 
noyance. The forward end should be exactly the same distance 
from the shoulder of either front skein. If not so fitted, trouble 
will invariably result. Iron parts should all be fastened down 
securely and not allowed to project and offer possible means of 
injury to the team. If more than two horses are to be used 
the forward end may be fitted either with an iron ring into which 
a chain may be looped or with an upright hook known as a 




Fig. 147. 



162 HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

*' goose neck." The latter is always used when cattle are to be 
worked, but in such a case the tongue must be shorter and heavier 
than that used for horses. 

Stiff tongues, which are so fastened into the front hounds 
that the forward end can not be dropped, and which are known 



,Brake Rod 



Short Bar 




2-bar bed brake. 



Fig. 148. 



3-bar bed brake. 



in most localities as " poles," are not satisfactory when heavy 
hauling is to be done over rough roads. They whip the team 
and render control of the fore wheels difficult. Half-drop tongues 
may be used on comparatively smooth roads, but for all-round 
work drop tongues are preferable. 

Tongue Hounds 



Fig. 149.— Tongue. 



Neck Yoke. — This is frequently known as a " breast yoke," 
the term probably originating from the fact that the article 
works before the horses' breasts. It should be straight and 
sound and must be especially reliable if heavy downhill hauling 
is to be done. This is due to the weight of the load being thrown 
against it at the center ring. The end ferrules must be kept 
tight and both end- and center-rings must be strong. The upper 
side should be ironed if either or both animals in the team are 
cribbers. See Fig. 150. 

Evener. — Another common name of this article is " double 
tree." It is a very important part of the gears, since the entire 
weight of the load is pulled directly from its center hole. For 
this reason it must be of especially strong material free from 



i 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



1G3 



flaws, such as knots and cracks or crooked, twisted, or warped 
grain. 

Together with the single trees it is ilkistrated in Fig. 152. 

Single Trees. — In many localities these are kno^\^l as '' whiflBe"- 
trees. They serve as a means of attaching the team to the load, 



End Ring . 




■ Center Ring 

Fig. 150. — Neck yoke 




Fig. 151. — Evener end. 
Showing bushing of clevis 
pin hole. 



and, like the double tree, must be of very sound material. They 

should be fitted with a straight center chp and ring, end ferrules 

rather than loops, and end clips so constructed that the traces 

of the harness will not work out easily. Substantial clevises 

fitted with screw pins should be 

used to attach them to the double 

tree. If straight pina are used care 

must be taken to see that they do not 

work up and allow the clevis to be 

broken. 

Bed. — For heavy hauling this 
should be extra strong and weU 
braced. If numerous boxes, bundles, 
duffle bags, and similar articles are 

to be hauled the most satisfactory type of bed is that known 
as a " rack." This is built in different sizes from 10 feet 
to 15 feet and 6 inches long, made 38, 42, and 44 inches wide, 
has from 5- to 8-inch sills, 10- to 14-inch side boards, a 
tool box at the front end, has an elevated seat and weighs from 
three hundred and forty to six hundred and seventy-five pounds. 
Bulky loads may be hauled without difficulty if the side boards 
are fitted with wings. 

The first pair of side boards of an ordinary wagon bed make 
the sides of the " bottom " box; the second pair make the " top " 
box; and the third pair make the " tip-top " box. The last 
are seldom used except in hauling cotton, grain, and similar 
articles. They are shown in Fig. 153. Rub irons should be in 



164 



HANDBOOK FOR EANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



good condition and thick enough to prevent wear of the tires 
against the lower corners of the bed. See Fig. 154. 




Fig. 152. — Evener and single trees. 





END CLEATS OF BED SIDE BRACE OF BED 

Fig. 153 



Fig. 154. — Rub iron. "Cut- '• 
under" type. 



CARE OF WAGONS 

Oiling or Greasing. — Oil or grease should always be placed on 
the upper side of the skein immediately next to the shoulder. 
The wheel will gradually work it around from there to all parts 
of the skein and the boxing, and particularly to those points 
where the greatest pressure comes. Castor oil is the best lubri- 
cant that can be obtained, and not more than a thimbleful is nec- 
essary for one application. If more than this is used it will 
work out and be wasted. 

Grease may be smeared on the skein with a small paddle 
short enough to be kept in the grease box. The amount used 
at one application need not exceed one-half cubic inch, and if 



GENERAL FIELD WOHK 165 

the skeins are greased regularly every day two-thirds of this 
amount will be sufficient. 

Removal and Replacement of Taps.— These operations are 
performed by means of the wrench-headed bolt which holds the 
evener or double tree to the tongue and which is known as a 




Log gears. 




Log gears with log bolsters removed. (For hauling lumber.) 
Fig. 155. 

" wagon hammer " or " wagon wrench." In removing a tap its 
edge nearest the front of the wagon is turned upward and back- 
ward toward the rear. This rule applies to all four taps, two 
of which are " left-handed " or " left-threaded." These are the 
ones on the left side of the wagon. They are replaced of course 
by turning them in an opposite direction. It will be seen at 
once that as the result of being screwed to the skeins in this 
manner they have a tendency to tighten rather than loosen as 
the wheels revolve forward. 

When removed they should not be laid with the greasy side 
downward but should be so disposed of that the side which 
works next the boxing of the hub is up. If two or more are 
removed at the same time and those from opposite sides be- 
come mixed they may be identified by a raised letter which 



166 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

appears on one of the square sides. On taps of the left side 
this letter is L and on the others it is R. No tap can be screwed 
on a skein opposite that for which it was intended, although taps 
of the same side will fit either the front or rear skein of that side. 

Removal and Replacement of Wheels. — These need not be 
completely removed when greasing is to be done. The wheel 
is simply lifted from the ground after the tap is removed and 
is then shd outward about 3 inches from the skein shoulder. 
It is then lowered to the ground, and if necessary tipped further 
outward to enable the skein to be reached more readily. After 
the grease has been apphed the wheel is tipped back to the 
perpendicular, lifted straight up, and then slid straight back 
against the skein shoulder. This method of removing the wheel 
for greasing is very convenient when no wagon jack is available, 
and a man with ordinary strength will experience no difficulty 
in raising the wheel of an unloaded wagon, the easiest way of 
doing which is to seize a spoke in either hand as he faces the 
wheel and then Uft straight up and slightly outward. In re- 
placing a wheel raised with a jack it should be lifted till the 
boxing strikes the under side of the skein and then slid back 
against the skein shoulder. 

The coning of skeins and boxing makes it impossible to put 
a wheel on backward, and the boxing of any wheel in a set will 
fit any skein of the corresponding set unless special construction 
is responsible for front a,nd rear skeins of different sizes. In 
other words, so long as a set is not broken, rear wheels may be 
used on front skeins, front wheels may be used on rear skeins, 
wheels of the right side may be used on the left side or wheels 
of the left side may be used on the right side. 

In specially constructed, wagons having front and rear skeins 
of different sizes the skeins of the same axle are of the same size. 

Greasing the Bolster Plates. — Many teamsters attempt to 
make travel easier for their teams by keeping the bolster plates 
well greased in order to facilitate turning. Turning is without 
doubt performed with greater ease when the plates are greased, 
but for this very reason the tongue whips the animals more 
severely when rough roads are traveled over and the resultant 
disadvantages far outweigh the advantages gained by greasing 
the plates. Consequently, the practice is to be avoided except 
in certain cases when for some unusual reason turning can be 
accomplished only with difficulty unless the plates are greased. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 1G7 

Tires. — Tight tires constitute the chief factor in economical 
upkeep of a wagon. Efficiency of a wheel depends wholly upon 
the strength of the tire and the degi-ee of closeness with which 
it fits against the felloes. Weak or loose tu-es, therefore, lessen 
a wheel's capacity for supporting a heavy load, and if allowed 
to remain on the wheel will eventually let it break down. 
If they become so loose that they must be tied or wired 
to the felloes, they should be re-set immediately. This should 
not be done, however, by an inexperienced person, but the work 
should be taken to a competent blacksmith or wheel^Tight. 
If tires merely slip to one side they may be forced back into 
position by slight taps against the exposed feUoes immediately 
beneath those portions which have shpped. They can not be 
forced into position by blows directed against the projecting 
edges. 

Use of the Brake. — Proper use of their brake is one impor- 
tant feature of good driving that many teamsters overlook, and 
the usual result is sore necks for the team, damage to the wagon, 
or even severe accidents to both the driver or his team and 
wagon. The brake is suppHed for the purpose of regulating 
the speed with which 'a load descends a grade, and the weight 
of the wagon, whether loaded or empty, should never be allowed 
to j am suddenly against the center ring of the neck yoke. Neither 
should the brake be set at one pressure and left there through- 
out the entire descent of a grade. It should be regulated in 
such a way as to keep the load moving at a uniform momentum 
in descent. Its proper and intelligent use gives the driver al- 
most absolute control of his load at all times, and a little expei-i- 
ence will soon teach him just what pressure must be applied 
under given conditions. 

DRIVING 

Simple as this work may seem, it is by no means possible for 
a novice to perform it with success until he has learned three 
very important things, viz.: To hold the reins moderately taut 
and not allow them to hang low down between the animals; 
to speak to the animals in clear, distinct tones little louder than 
those used in addressing a person; and to use the brake when 
necessary. 

Customarily the reins, or " hnes," are held in the left hand and 



168 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

the brake is operated with the right. The Hne to the off horse 
passes through between the thumb and forefinger as the hand 
is held palm downward and the other hne enters the hand from 
the opposite side, the two crossing beneath the palm. Holding 
them in this manner permits the driver to turn his team easily 
with a lateral movement of the wrist. It may be necessary 
in some instances to allow one hne to sUp through the hand, 
especially when short, sharp turns are made, but it may be 
replaced immediately afterward. 

The checks are the shorter lengths of leather that buckle 
into the hne and work across to the bit ring of the opposite 
horse. They should be adjusted in such a manner that each 
animal may carry its head straight in line with its body and 
in a natural position. 

The tones used in addressing the team should be moderately 
loud and very clear and distinct. Most draft animals are trained 
to respond to certain verbal directions, and if these are muttered 
indistinctly or issued in loud, angry tones more or less confusion 
to the animals will be the result. Work animals in many rural 
districts are guided almost entirely by the driver's voice. Thus 
he calls out " get up " to start the animal, " haw " to turn it 
to the left, " gee " to turn it in the opposite direction, " whoa " 
to stop it, and issues other instructions according to the work 
being done and to the manner in which the animal has been 
trained. When the team is to be stopped the brake should be 
applied in order to assist in checking the progress of the load, 
and if the team is to be left standing or tied for a considerable 
period of time the brake should be left firmly set. It should 
also be applied when the team is stopped for a short rest on a 
steep grade, and should not be released before the traces have 
been tightened preparatory to starting. If released sooner it 
allows the load to start backward down the grade, and this re- 
quires a much greater draft to start forward again than the 
motionless load would. Frequent short intervals of rest on 
grades are preferable to fewer and longer ones and will prove 
much more beneficial to the team. 

Another important use of the brake is checking the wagon as 
it crosses short, sharp dips, such as small ravines or large ruts. 
Many drivers disregard these short grades altogether, but the 
practice is to be strongly condemned. The whole secret of the 
proper use of the brake lies in applying it whenever it will pre- 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 1G9 

vent the whole weight of the load from jamming suddenly down 
against the center ring of the neck yoke. 

The regulation freight wagon, designed especially for hauKng 
that requires the use of two or more pairs of animals, usually 
has the brake lever on the near side. This facilitates its use by 
the driver, who generally rides the near-wheel animal, and who 
operates the brake bj^ means of a rope passed back to the lever 
from the saddle horn. Brake levers of trailers are attached to 
this lever in a similar manner and all are operated from the 
saddle. 

The animal working at the left side in a team of two is knowTi 
as the " lead," " wheel," or " near " horse, and the other is 
the " off " horse. Those on the right and left sides in the 
front of a team of four are known respectively as the " off leader" 
and the " near leader," and such a team is known as a " four " 
team or four " span " ^ 

A " six " team includes six animals, those between the leaders 
and wheel horses being known as " middles." 

An " eight " team includes eight animals and consists, from 
front to rear, of the leaders, the " first " and " second " middles, 
and the wheelers. 

A " spike " team includes an extra animal working alone 
before the leaders, such an animal being kno-uTi as the " spike." 

A six team hauUng a wagon and one trailer is known as a 
"two-six" team. A second trailer makes it a "three-six." 
Thus a train of freighting wagons including two eight-teams each 
hauHng two trailers, three six-teams each hauhng one trailer, 
and a four-team without a trailer, would be known as " two 
three-eights, three two-sixes, and a four." 

Other combinations of animals and wagons are designated 
according to the number of each in an outfit. 

When using a team of more than four, the driver usually 
rides the near wheel animal and guides the whole team by 
means of a " jerk " hne attached to the bit ring of the near 
leader. A steady pull on this turns the leader to the right, while 
a succession of slight jerks, usually three in number, turns it 
in an opposite direction. Jerk Hues can be used only on animals 



1 The term "span" is usually appUed to a pair of mules, but may be, 
and frequently is, applied. to a pair of mares. Its use with reference to 
horses is Umited. 



170 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

that have been well trained. Poorly trained or fractious animals 
must be controlled by means of bits and Unes. 

WOODS WORK 

The ranger or woodsman may find it necessary to cut and 
hew logs for cabins or bridges, telephone poles may be needed, 
timber and brush must be cut out along roads and trails or 
felled in case of fire, fuel must be secured, and numerous other 
fines of similar work may demand his attention. It is, therefore, 
to Ms advantage to know how to handle certain tools involved, 
and he must in any event know something about the use and 
care of -an ax. 

Axes. — Contrary to a general idea held by inexperienced per- 
sons, there are a number of different styles of axes, each espe- 
cially adapted to a particular use and many unsuited to other 
uses. Thus, a broadax, constructed for hewing, is not suited to 
general woods work; and pole-axes, designed for all-round chop- 
ping, are not conveiuent tools to use for hewing. The marking 
hatchet, used by officers of the Forest Service in marking certain 
timber to be removed, is in reality a fight ax, but is unsuited 
to heavy work. A general description of a number of different 
axes is given merely to serve as an outline of the uses to which 
they can be put to best advantage. 

Pole-ax. — This is made with one round-cornered bit, some- 
what longer at the rear than in front, and a square or rounded 




Pole-ax handle. 
Fig. 156. 



pole, and is fitted with a curved handle, which can be inserted 
in the eye in only one way. See Fig, 156. The pole may, in 
emergencies, be used in driving pegs or stakes, but the curved 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



171 



handle, inverted at such times, makes the ax a very incc^venient 
tool to use. 

Pole-axes may be secured upon requisition for official work. 
For general use they should be fitted with a 36-inch handle, 
and should not exceed four pounds in weight. Their cost, in- 
cluding the handle, varies from $1.25 to $1.50. 

Double-bitted Ax. — Instead of having a square or rounded 
pole this ax bears two bits, both in line with the handle, and 
the latter, unhke that of a pole-ax, is straight with a swell at 
the end, and is so constructed that it may be used with equal 
facility with either bit. See Fig. 157. Woodsmen differ widely 
in their opinions as to what constitutes the best all-round ax, 




Handle for double-bitted ax 
Fig. 157. 



but for all purposes work in the woods a four-pound double- 
bitted ax with 36-inch handle is recommended. The fiat side of 
this may be used in di'iving stakes or tent pegs; one bit may be 
used exclusively for such work as may cause it to be thrust 
intentionally or accidentally into the ground; and the other bit 
may be kept sharp for felhng or for other regular field chopping. 
If such an ax can not be secured by requisition it can be pur- 
chased for about the same price as a pole-ax. 

Broadax. — This is made especially for hewing. It has an 
extra wide bit, with almost square corners, and the bit is beveled 
only on one side. The eye is so constructed as to permit the 
insertion of the handle from either side, thus providing for the 
use of the ax by either a right- or a left-handed person. On ac- 



172 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

count of the single bevel it is unfit for any use except hewing. See 
Fig. 158. 

Handax. — This is simply a light broadax designed for use 
in one hand. Ordinarily any hewing that can be done with a 




Broadax. 



Broadax handle. 
Fig. 158. 



handax can be accompUshed with very Httle more labor with 
a common pole-ax or a double-bitted ax. Their inclusion in a 
camp outfit is not recommended. See Fig. 159. 





Fig. 160. — Shingling 
or lathing hatchet. 



Marking Hatchet. — This is a light, specially constructed ax 
supphed the field man for use in marking timber that is to be 
felled or removed. The pole bears the raised letters US, which 
are used in stamping Government timber, and the corners of the 
bit are somewhat more angular than those of the regulation pole- 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 173 

ax. Two lengths of handles are furnished, and for extensive 
marking or blazing the longer length is recommended. Marking 
hatchets are supplied upon requisition, and particular care must 
be observed not to lose one, since it might be utiUzed for illegal 
purposes if found and used by an unauthorized person. 

Belt-ax. — This is a very small ax with a short handle, some- 
times folding, and designed to be carried at the belt of the woods- 
man. It can be used only in very Ught work, such as blazing 
trails, lopping off small branches, or triinming out brush. On 
camping trips where no other form of ax is available a belt-ax 
is a very convenient tool, but its inclusion in a camj^ outfit 
under any other conditions is not recommended. 

Shingling Hatchet.— This is shown in Fig. 160. The bit is 
narrow, the front straight, the pole flat and usually rough-sur- 
faced for driving, and the blade is notched at the rear side for 
pulling nails. The tool is of Mttle use other than for the work 
for which it is designed, but is a most convenient article for use 
in shingling. 

Carpenter's Adz. — In reality this is a broadax having the bit 
at right angles to the handle. It is a particularly convenient 
ax for hewing the Upper surface of timbers as the operator 
stands astride of or faces them. It is practically useless for 
any other work. It costs from $1.25 to $2.00. 

Care of Axes. — Grinding. — The manufacturer, in order to se- 
cure better protection of his goods in shipping, puts only a blunt 
edge on an ax and does not expect the tool to be used before 




Adz. Adz handle. 

Fig. 161. 



it has been properly sharpened. New axes, therefore, can not 
be used with satisfaction until this has been done. The ax 
should never be ground on a dry stone, since this will not only 
heat it and have a more or less detrimental effect on the temper, 
but will also wear or break the stone away faster. Contrary 
to a common beUef that a better cutting edge may be obtained 
by tm-ning the stone away from the ax, it may be turned in either 



174 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

direction with equally satisfactory results both to the ax and 
to the stone so long as the former is not held at an angle that 
forces its edge deep into the surface of the latter. The ax should 
be held against the stone in such a way that the bevel of the 
bit is ground back evenly and uniformly, leaving the shoulders 
in the same relative position to the edge as they were before the 
ax was ground; otherwise the edge will be left either too blunt 
or too thin. In the former case extra force must be applied 
to make the edge enter a timber; in the latter the edge will bend 
or chip away and break. 

Whetting. — This is the finishing operation in sharpening. It 
can best be done by the use of a small stone which can be rubbed 
against the bit rather than the bit against it. The object of 
whetting the bit is to remove any rough or " feather " edges 
that may have been produced by grinding. If such edges are 
left on the bit they wiU interfere seriouslj^ with chopping. 

Filing. — It not infrequently happens that the field man's 
supply of tools does not include either giindstone or whetstone, 
and as a result he is forced to use a file for a substitute. Much 
needless muscular effort will be avoided if the field man remem- 
bers that a file cuts only on the forward thrust. If a whetstone 
is available the ax may be whetted after fifing the same as 
after grinding and much better results wiU be secured. 

Removal of Broken Handles. — The wedge in the end of the 
handle should, if possible, be withdrawn and the handle then 
puUed backward out of the eye; but if the wedge can not be 
removed then the handle should be cut or sawed off close up 
against the ax and the portion left in the eye driven forward. 
The wedge wiU prevent it from being driven backward. If it 
can be driven neither way, then, if a brace and bit can be secured, 
several holes may be bored through it and the sections split out 
one at a time. In an emergency it may even be burned out by 
placing the ax in a fire, but this will prove injurious to the temper 
of the ax and should be resorted to only as a last resource. 

Making New Handles. — These should be of sound, seasoned, 
heart white oak {Quercus alba), post-oak (Q. minor), or hickory 
(Hicoria ovata or alba). Sound sap wood of any of these is also 
good, but the idea that sound hickory heartwood is not as strong 
as the sap wood is erroneous. Such timber should be straight- 
grained and free from knots, cracks, and season checks. 

The broken handle, temporarily reassembled, may be used as 



GENEPIAL FIELD WORK 175 

a pattern by which to mark off the new handle. The latter is 
then roughly hewn out, dressed down with a pocket-knife or 
draw-shave, and finally finished with glass or sandpaper. The 
end to be inserted in the e3^e should be so shaped as to fill the 
eye completely before being wedged. 

Inserting New Handles. — It is very important that this opera- 
tion be performed with greatest care if the ax is to " hang " 
properly. The bit must be exactly in line with the handle, the 
blade must set perpendicularly to the curve, and the rear corner 
of the bit must not set too far back. It is always a wise pre- 
caution to use the ax in Hght work for a short time before the 
handle is wedged in permanently. Dry hardwood wedges are 
preferable to ii'on wedges. 

Chopping. — This operation, like all others involving the use of 
a certain tool, is a distinct art that can be acquired only through 
extensive practice, and there will be no attempt made here to 
elucidate it except as to the superficial points. 

It may be performed either right- or left-handed. In the 
former the end of the handle is grasped in the left hand, the 
right being placed approximately haK-way dowTi the handle, 
and the ax is swung over the right shoulder. On the downward 
thrust, the force is about equally divided between the pushing 
motion of the right hand and the puUing motion of the left. 
In left-handed chopping the respective positions and move- 
ments of the hands and arms are reversed, and the ax is s-^img 
over the left shoulder. Considerable practice is necessary be- 
fore the bit of the ax can be directed in everj^ instance against 
a desired spot on a timber, and even after that abihty has been 
acquired there remains the problem of tilting the ax at' the 
proper time and angle required to dislodge the chip and throw 
it out. 

A very common mistake made by novices is their attempts 
to cut squarely across the grain of a timber. Instead of direct- 
ing the bit exactly across the gi'ain it should be thrust obliquely 
into it, unless certain conditions, such as the need for a square- 
ended timber, for instance, prohibit this. 

In chopping through a timber it should be notched from one 
side to or near the center, the notch forming an angle of approxi- 
mately 45 degrees. The timber is then roUed over and a second 
notch, cut in such a manner that its apex will meet the apex 
of the first, is made. If an attempt is made to cut through a 



17G HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

large log from one side the notch will necessarily be so wide 
that satisfactory results can not be obtained. 

The only general rule for cutting squarely across the grain of 




Diamond-tooth saw. 



^*w«fwn»ja»wwamm^^ 



iJiWJJ'J^J'^^ 



Perforated lance-tooth saw. 




Peg-tooth saw. 



aiiii^^ 



''^'JWn^unJlP 



One-man saw. 




Fig. 162. — Two-man saw handles. 

a timber is followed in notching a tree that is to be felled, and 
even in that case the grain is cut diagonally in one direction. 
. . Any operation with an ax is so completely governed by local 
conditions that only actual experience can dictate exactly what 
rules to follow. 

Splitting. — This operation differs from chopping, as the ocrm 
is generally used, in that the grain of a timber is split apart 
rather than severed. 

The greatest problem that novices must solve is in keeping 
the blade of an ax from passing clear through a timber and into 
the ground. This may be avoided, however, by a shght tilt of 
the poll to one side immediately after the bit enters the timber. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 177 

This not only utilizes the grain at one side of the bit as a ful- 
crum for the bit to act on against that of the other side, but 
it also serves to turn the blade from its direct course through 
the timber and thereby prevents it from sticking fast. 

Tough, gnarly timber that cannot be spht thi'ough the center 
may be worked up by " slabbing." This consists of sphtting off 
slabs around the outer portions of the timber, gradually working 
in toward the heart, and finally reducing it to such a diameter as 
will permit its being spUt open. Large knots may be split with- 
out difficulty by directing a tilting blow against them in line 
with the grain of the tree. 

Saws. — Saws used for general field work may be roughly 
classed as one-man and two-man cross-cuts, a third variety for 
light work about camp and other such places being the " buck " 
saw. For hand-saws, see page 119. 

Two-man saws are made in three principal styles, all of which 
are shown in Fig. 162, and which are known as " Diamond 
Tooth," " Perforated Lance Tooth," and '' Peg Tooth." For 
any ordinary work none of these should be less than 53^ feet in 
length. The perforated lance tooth variety is recommended for 
field use. 

This same variety is also recommended in a one-man saw for 
light work about a station. It will be found especially satis- 




FlG. 16.3. — Buck-saw. 

factory in cutting fuel wood, and is recommended in preference 
to the common buck-saw. 

Buck-saws may or may not be constructed with drag teeth, 
but if such a saw is to be used it is suggested that one with 
drags be secured. 



178 handbooe: for kange.rs and woodsmen 

The one-man and the two-man cross-cut saws and the drag- 
tooth buck-saw all cut in both the forward and backward stroke. 

Sawing. — Neither man should push a cross-cut saw; it is 
constructed in such a way as to provide for cutting when it 
is pulled, but it is too Umber to be pushed. The strokes should 
be full and the whole cutting length of the blade should be 
utilized. Short strokes, not wearing upon the teeth near the 
ends of the blade, leave them so long and thick in comparison 
with the teeth that are continually used that a full stroke of 
the blade soon becomes impossible. 

Each stroke should be even and regular and no extra force 
should be directed against the teeth to make them cut faster; 
such saws are so constructed that their own weight will feed the 
teeth fast enough if these are kept in good condition. 

In cutting through horizontal timbers both handles of the 
saw should be held as nearly at right angles to the log as pos- 
sible, and should be slightl}' raised at the outward end of the 
stroke. This eliminates stiff, unyielding strokes, the cutting edge 
of the saw being made convex in order to provide for the longitu- 
dinal rocking motion thus produced. 

In felling timber with a cross-cut saw the latter is of course 
started into the tree approximately at right angles to it, and in 
this case must be held against the wood with sufficient force 
to produce satisfactory progi-ess. The operators may grasp their 
respective handles with both hands, or one hand may gi-asp the 
handle and the other the back of the saw near the handle, de- 
pending entirely upon personal ideas of convenience. 

Filing. — Examination of a saw will show two sets of teeth, 
viz.: (1) The cutting teeth, and (2) the drag teeth or " rakers." 
The first are made in such a way that only a sharp point cuts, 
and these points are arranged alternately along the blade. The 
second are forked, have square bits, and are not provided for 
cutting piu-poses, but are solely for use in dragging or raking 
out the chips cut away by the teeth. 

In filing the teeth they should be left as nearly in their original 
shape as possible, a very common faiHng of saw-filers being their 
propensity to cut away, or " dub off," the points without fifing 
back the shoulders; this results in blunt teeth that wiU not cut 
as clean or as fast as long, tapering teeth. 

Particular care must be observed to have the teeth all the 
same length after the saw has been filed; if some are left longer 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 179 

than the others the saw will jump or hang, feed to one side, or 
otherwise prove disagreeable to work with. 

Rakers should be left sUghtly shorter than the teeth, or they 
will prevent the latter from entering the wood and a rough, 
jerking motion in sawing will be the result. They should be 
left short enough so that when the sawder looks along the edge 
oi the blade he will observe a shallow groove, the ends of the rakers 
forming its bottom, and the short sides of the teeth its sides. 
This diiTerence in length between the teeth and rakers should 
not exceed ^/ei-inch nor be less than Vioo-inch, depending upon 
the nature of the wood to be cut, softer woods of course per- 
mitting the length of shorter rakers. 

If no vise is available in filing, a stump may be sawed into 
from the top and the saw held in the cut, teeth upward. After 
all teeth on one side have been filed the saw is reversed and the 
remaining teeth are filed; this will be much more convenient than 
trying to file each tooth of both sides as the saw is passed through 
the cut. After the teeth have all been carefully " jointed," or 
filed to the same length, the rakers are next sharpened and filed 
down to the proper length, care being taken to see that they 
are all the same. 

Setting. — This is necessary in order to allow for a kerf wide 
enough for the blade of the saw to pass through without binding, 
and is especially necessary when green or very soft timber is to 
be cut ; a much narrower set is sufficient for hard timber through 
which the saw passes slowly. 

The operation of setting a saw properly calls for considerable 
skill unless the woodsman has access to a regulation saw set 
made especially for the purpose; in such a case all that need 
l)e done is to regulate the set and then operate on each tooth. 

But if no set is available the saw may be laid flat on a stump, 
and all the points along one side of the blade may be bent sHghtly 
outward by being tapped with some iron instrument. When 
the points along one side have been thus treated, the blade is 
turned over and the other teeth are given similar treatment. 
The chief disadvantage of this method of setting is the utter 
impossibility of directing the same amount of force against each 
tooth, thus leaving some with more set than others. 

Rakers are never set. 

Wedges. — These are used in hastening or directing the felling 
of timber, in relieving a saw of the pressure from the sides of 



180 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMI^N 

the kerf, in splitting or otherwise opening timbers, and forcing 
back the sides of the kerf when a saw is to be removed. There 
are of course numerous other uses to which wedges may be put, 
but these are the principal ones. 

Wedges to be driven into kerfs where severe binding has oc- 
curred should not be struck a sharp blow at first; if this is done 
they are quite likely to rebound. Shght taps should be delivered 






Fig. 164. — Wedges. 

until they have been firmly set in the kerf, after which more 
vigorous blows may be struck. 

If they prove to be too small or too thin for the splitting of 
heavy timbers, larger wooden wedges, known as " gluts," may 



Chisel Bill 




Round Bill 

Socket peavy. 




Fig. 165. 



Canthook. 



be used to insert beside them. These, too, may rebound if 
struck too hard at first. They should be of very hard wood, 
and should have the large end rounded off to avoid splitting; 
ragged edges should be trimmed away. 

ESTIMATING TIMBER 

So many influencing factors enter into this line of work that 
a rather formidable problem is presented. The varieties and 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 18 1 

sizes of timber, its condition and quality as affected by alti- 
tude and latitude and general climatic conditions, its accessi- 
bility by wagon or otherwise, its distance from market, the 
probable effect on other timber that its removal may have, and 
numerous other points involved, must all be given due con- 
sideration by the estimator and included in his reports. It is 
therefore obvious that to be a good estimator a field rhan must 
be a very close observer and must have good judgment and 
active perceptive powers. 

Methods of estimating timber vary in different locaUties. 
Deductions for defects may be made from an ocular estimate; 
a certain number of average trees may be used as a basis for 
compiling an estimate on a given tract; or strips may be run 
through a country, estimates made to a certain distance either 
side of the center line, and the final report based on data thus 
secured. Local conditions are largely responsible for the dif- 
ferent methods. 

For example: Owing to the varieties of woods found on the 
same areas in the Arkansas forests, two men have worked to- 
gether, one running the compass, pacing distances, and mapping 
the country, the other securing an estimate of the timber to a 
given distance either side of the hne followed by the compass 
man. Ordinarily these hnes were rim through the center of 
each forty-acre tract and estimates were made to a point two rods 
away on either side. The area thus actually considered em- 
braced two acres, or 5%, of the whole forty, and reports for the 
forty were based on the data so secured. Observations of poles, 
seedlings, and sapUngs were taken at given points along the 
hne and covered given areas. 

Reconnoissance men work alone, however, where timber oc- 
curs in sohd stands, each man doing his own. pacing, running 
his own hnes, and making his own maps. Forty-acre tracts 
may be crossed tw^ice if the density of the stand demands it. 

A hne through a forty is not run at random, as may be sup- 
posed, but is started and run from a regularly established point. 
Temporary base lines are estabhshed in unsurveyed country, 
and comers are set along these at intervals of 80 rods and at 
points which bring them at the middle of the forty hnes. Such 
corners are only temporary in nature and are marked usually 
by stakes driven into the ground and scribed or numbered as 
desired. The base lines are started from some known corner 



182 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

in a regular survey, as shown in Fig. 166, and are run in any 
direction the work may demand, usually however due north 
and south or east and west. 

The cruiser starts at one of these temporary corners and paces 



1 


[ i 




-T 

1 




1 - 

i 


1 ! 1 

Bkse Line of .Tetnporary Comfers 
5'g 1 


Established 
1^ Corner 


Surveyed 


1 

L -_ 


..j_____ a 




1 
1 
I 


Seeticn 


i 


1 1 
1 1 

1 I 

! ' ' 

1^ Theoretical Sectiou 


Line 







Fig. 166. 



the distance from there to the center of the forty he is to " work." 
From there he runs through the middle of each succeeding forty 
as shown in Fig. 167, the arrows indicating his hne of travel. 
He is expected to check his distances " on section or quarter 
corners when he is working in surveyed territory, and thereby 



FiniBh. 



^■ 



i 



.h 



X 



€Et:S 



z£r 



ii 



Fig. 167. 



enable himseK to rectify any errors in pacing that may have 
occurred. A little experience will soon make his work quite 
accurate and he will be able to check within a few rods of the 
corners. 
In timber to be estimated, particular attention must be given 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 183 

to all defects. These include, among others, spike tops, cat 
faces, frost cracks, crooked trunks, rotten limb stubs, holes, 
large or rotten knots, burned, rotten, or swelled butts, and other 
indications may appear which show a tree to be unsound. 

There is no hard and fast rule that can be followed in deter- 
mining just what constitutes a defect in standing timber, and 
the cruiser is therefore compelled to rely upon his own judgment 
and make his reports accordingly. His best and quickest method 
of securing a practical knowledge of defects is to follow defective 
logs through the mill and observe the internal condition of each 
one as it is opened up by the saw. 

FELLING TIMBER 

This begins after all preliminary estimates and other arrange- 
ments for a timber sale have been completed, and while it may 
not appear to be an important operation, it is, in fact, one which, 
unless it is carried on properly, may result in the sale being 
closed. It is imperative therefore that the field man in charge 
of the sale be famihar with what constitutes proper and improper 
felUng. 

If a tree's exterior condition is such as to preclude all doubt 
of a worthless interior it should be left standing unless the con- 
tract specifically states that such material must be removed or 
at least felled. In most Government sales the contract em- 
braces a clause providing for the removal or felUng of any timber 
that may present a fire menace or which may result in damage 
to other timber if left standing. 

One precaution which the field man should observe in his 
movements about the sale area where felhng is in progress is to 
be on the lookout for large Hmbs left hanging in other trees and 
known as " fool Idllers." Such hmbs may fall at any, time and 
it is never wise to work beneath them. 

The first thing to be considered in felling is the direction in 
which the tree is to be thrown. If it is straight and the heavy 
top branches are evenly distributed around the stem, the ground 
is level, no strong wind is blowing, transportation facilities are 
ecjually good from any direction, other timber will not be dam- 
aged and other conditions permit, then it may as well be felled 
in one direction as another. If it leans as shown in Fig. 168, 
it should be felled if possible at right angles to the direction 



184 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

of inclination. This eliminates to a degree the possibility of a 
broken or split stem as shown in the same figure. 

If circumstances prevent it from being felled in such a manner 




Method_of notching and sawing Stem split as result of 

leaning tree. improper notching. 

Fig. 168. 



it should be notched deeply on the side to which it leans. The 
saw should be started in on the opposite side at a point from 
2 to 4 inches lower than the base of the notch; if started in 
above the notch the stem is much more apt to split. When 
splitting does occur, and the shattered butt is held high in the 
air, the workmen should retire in a line at right angles to the 
stem rather than backward from it. After precautions have 
been taken to see that the stem will not slip sidewise from the 
stump nor " kick " backward over it, the stump should be cut 
through from one side and the stem allowed to tip to that side. 
This operation is a dangerous one, as there is always a possibility 
of the crumpled branches in the top forcing the stem backward 
when the stump is cut through. 

Double trees, growing together at a point sufficiently high to 
prevent them from splitting apart when felled, should be thrown 
as illustrated in Fig. 169. If it is apparent that they will split 
apart as soon as one is cut through, they may be felled away 
from each other. 

A tree lodged in another as shown in Fig. 170 may be thrown 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



185 



down by felling the supporting tree at right angles to it. A 
close watch should be maintained during this operation to see 

that pressure of the lodged 
tree does not cause the other 
to fall sooner or in another 
direction than that desired. 
Felling timber across young 
growth and breaking it down 
should not be permitted, ex- 
cept, of course, where dense 





Fig. 169. — Notch for felling double 
trees. 



Fig. 170. — Lodged tree. 



f=\ 



stands of young growth can not be avoided. Particular atten- 
tion is given to this point in all Government sales, and when such 
feUing occurs after one or two warnings from the officer in 
charge of the sale it may be considered sufficient cause for 
prohibiting further operations in the sale. 

Refuse resulting from trimming and other 
operations must be piled compactly or else scat- 
tered, depending upon the terms of the contract. 
High stumps, as shown in Fig, 171, must also 
be avoided, the stump height usually being speci- 
fied in the contract. Certain local conditions, 
such as short, scrubby timber wdth large, heavy Fig. 171. 
tops or defective trunks resulting from burns, 
may justify a deviation from certain fixed rules, but this should 
never be done without the approval of the proper authorities. 

Another practice to be forbidden is feUing trees across large 
logs, stumps, or rocks and shattering them until they are no 
longer merchantable. 



7 



V 



186 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Still another great loss may occur when trees are felled in such 
a position that the logs can not be hauled out without great 
expense. These points are all covered, however, in the contract, 




^Felled on a Limb 

Fig. 172. 



and they should receive the closest attention from the man in 
charge of tte sale. 

BUCKING LOGS 

Improper bucking is responsible for one of the greatest losses 
in the lumbering industry. Crooked logs especially present 
excellent opportunities for careless buckers to waste an entire 
tree when one or more logs might, with proper bucking, be 
secured. If a tree is bucked at the 16-foot length as shown in 
Fig. 173, there is a 25% loss, all that portion of the log down 




Fig. 173. 



to the 12-foot length being total waste. If the same tree is 
bucked at the 12- and 20-foot lengths two good logs may be 
secured and practically all the tree utihzed. 

In Fig. 174, instead of cutting a butt log 16 or 18 feet long, 
losing the 2 or 4 feet in the crotch and going to the unnecessary 
trouble of cutting the two large limbs at 24 feet, and again at 
36 feet, it would be much more profitable to cut a 12-foot butt 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



187 



log, then cut the crotch at 24 feet and the branches at 36 feet, 
and thus secure four straight 12-foot logs. The ends of a few 
planks in the middle log might possibly be damaged, but the 
loss thus sustained would be much less than if the tree were 
bucked after the first method. 

Fig. 175 represents loss in a top. The top log would provide 
enough sound lumber to make its removal from the woods 
profitable. 

Another waste occurs where 2, 4, or 6 feet of sound log are 
left in a top merely because certain log lengths are desired. 




Fig. 176. 



Thus, in Fig. 176, a 16-foot log is secured and a 4-foot length 
wasted. One 20-foot or two 10-foot logs would have resulted 
in practically no waste. 

In Fig. 177 more than a foot of sound log is wasted. This 
is due to the fact that lumber is always cut in lengths of even 



Fig. 178. 



Fig. 177. 



feet unless a special order calls for other lengths. Consequently 
the lumber in this log must all be cut back to 10 feet in length, 
while the log might have been cut 3 or 4 inches over 12 feet in 
length and made into 12-foot lumber. 



188 HANDBOOK FOK RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

The 11-foot log shown in Fig. 177 must also be made into 
10-foot lumber. In Fig. 178 aU of A is lost. 
A trimming allowance of from 3 to 4 inches is usually allowed 

on all logs, although in 
Forest Service sales the 
allowance is usually speci- 
fied as not more than 3 
inches. 

LOG SCALING 

So many influencing 
factors enter into the prob- 





(For large 
timber.) 



Fig. 179. — Log rules. 

lem of formulating a table by which the board feet contents of an 
unsawed log may be determined that there are a number 
of scales or rules used. Thus, the Scribner, among the oldest, 
may be used in one locality; the Doyle may be found in com- 
mon use in another; the Doyle-Scribner is used in another; and 
the Champlain, International, Maine, or Cumberland River, or 
any one of thirty or forty others, may be used in other sections. 
Many small operators, particularly in the South, use no scale 
whatever, but measure each piece of lumber as it leaves the 
mill; others, operating solely for local trade, retain as their pay 
for sawing a certain per cent of the pieces sawed, this method 
being known as '^ sawing on shares." Official instructions issued 
to scalers are substantially as follow: 

All scaling shall be done with the Scribner Decimal '' C " 
rule.^ Each log or piece, unless culled, shall be scaled, num- 
bered, branded " U. S.," and recorded separately. 



1 For Log Rules, see p. 362, Appendix. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 189 

Standard ties (8 feet long, 6 inches thick, and 8 inches wide) 
may be sold either by the tie or by the thousand board feet, 
allowing thirty ties to the thousand feet. Ties of other dimen- 
sions may be sold likewise, except that a greater or smaller 
number, according to their size, must be allowed to the 
thousand feet. 

Posts, poles, piles, stulls, etc., may be sold by the linear foot, 
by board measure, or by the piece, as stipulated in the contract. 
Each one shall be branded. 

Wood sold by the cord should be branded both at the top 
and bottom of a pile, and a dozen or more other pieces in the 
pile also branded. " Merchantable " logs are those from which 
one-third or more of their contents as shown by the scale may 
be made into sound material. This term includes such material 
as will not grade lower than No. 3 Common as determined by 
the grading rules of the locahty in which the timber is cut. 
Thus a log containing 240 board feet full measure is not " mer- 
chantable " if less than 80 feet can be made into " sound " 
material, but is merchantable if 80 feet or more can be utihzed 
as " sound " material. 

All logs exceeding ,16 feet in length are to be scaled as two or 
more logs as nearly the same length as possible. This rule is 
departed from in Alaska and on the west slope of the Cascade 
Mountains in Oregon and Washington, where logs from 32 to 
64 feet, inclusive, are to be scaled in a similar manner. Such 
scaling requires the operator to exercise his o-^tl judgment in 
allowing for increase in diameter of the lower logs. In 
doing this he can hardly follow any set riile although a 



fi?iiii]ri?[7i ili ilui7i^1Tiili i?l^^ 



Fig. 180. — Board rule 

table of such increase will be supplied for his general 
guidance. 

Every fifth or sixth log shall be measm-ed to ascertain whether 
or not the trimming allowance is being exceeded. In aggi-a- 
vated cases violation of this term of the contract shall be con- 
sidered sufficient cause for cancelation of the contract. Other- 



190 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

wise the scaler will charge for two extra feet of log and this will 
be recorded as a " penalty " scale. Measurements of the diam- 
eter are taken inside the bark at the small end of the log. If 
that end is elliptical rather than round an average diameter will 
be taken by seciu-ing a measurement at right angles across the 
short diameter and averaging the two. In all cases diameters 
are to be rounded off to the nearest inch. 

Proper allowance will be made for all defects that will damage 
a log, but no definite rule can be followed. The only general 




12' 



{i 



23 



Butt off 





rule that can be followed successfully is to 
ascertain the amount of board feet in- 
cluded in the defect and deduct this from 
the full scale. The most common 
defects are: Hollows, cracks, shake, 
dote, circular-, uniform- and side- 
rot, dead, soft, or blue sap, seams, 
sweeps, and crotches. If a hoUow 
extends the entire length of a log 
the scaler should deduct from the 
full scale as many board feet as 
may be contained in a square tim- 
ber equal in diameter to the larger 

end of the hollow and as long as the log. Shorter hollows 
should be allowed for accordingly. Uniform rot, which 
extends completely through a log from end to end, should 



Rot 

Fig. 181 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 191 

be allowed for the same as a hollow, shorter rot deducted 
accordingly.^ 

When cracks and shake are so extensive as to render material 
'' unsound," they must be allowed for accordingly. 

Circular and side rot should be treated in a similar manner. 

Punk knots invariably indicate a worthless log. If the latter 
were sound they would not appear. They should not, however, 
l)e confused with pitch knots, as the latter seldom damage a log 
to any gi'eat extent and are usually removed in the slab. 

Logs having dead, soft, or blue sap should be scaled inside 
such sap. Blue sap does not necessarily lower the grade of 
lumber, but always lessens its market value. 

Seams should be treated the same as cracks unless they are 
spii'al, in which case they may be so extensive as to render an 
entire log worthless. Sweep, or curve, as shown in Fig. 182, 
demands considerable attention, and local conditions niust ieter- 
mine the amount to be deducted. As a general rule, no aUow- 



FlG. 182. 

ance should be made for the defect when it occurs in logs ex- 
ceeding 16 feet in length. It is agreed in the contract that log 
lengths win be varied in such a 
way as to permit close utihza- i ^^ 

tion. Crotches damage a log in ^ ...xjwastej 

proportion to their extent, and 
result in gnarled, cross-grained, 
brittle lumber. 

Other defects may appear and 
the scaler must always be on the Fig. 183. ' 

lookout for them. He should, if 

possible, devote his spare time to the study of defects as they 
appear in logs opened at the mill. 

1 As a matter of fact, a hollow log wlU saw out less lumber than a 
rotten log having a rot equal in diameter to the hollow of the first. 
This is accoimted for by the fact that the carriage dogs will hold the 
rotten log until practically all the sound material can be cut from 
arovmd the rot, whUe the hoUow log can not be held after the hollow 
is reached. The walls of the hoUow either spht out or are not strong 
enough for the dogs to hold securely. 




192 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

He should also keep a set of gi^ading rules where they may 
be accessible at all times. A close study of these and of what 
quaUties lumber must possess to be classed in certain grades 
will enable him to attain a greater degree of proficiency in mak- 
ing allowance for defects. He is supplied with blank records, 
made up in book form, which permit the contents of one hun- 
dred logs to be recorded on each double page. These are num- 
bered from 1 to 00 and carry a column in which to enter lengths. 
Spaces are provided at the tops of the pages for the name of 
the purchaser, the date^ of the sale, the description of the area 
involved, and for other data pertinent to the sale; Page and 
grand totals are provided for at the bottom, and there is a sep- 
arate blank space for the officer's signature and title. These 
records are open to inspection by the purchaser only in the 
presence of the Supervisor or a District officer. 

LAND SURVEYS 

In practically all of the numerous Unes of work he must 
handle the field man will find the question of land fines involved, 
and it is essential that he have a thorough knowledge of at 
least the fundamental principles upon which land surveys are 
based. A detailed treatise on the subject would require volumes, 
and for that reason only the most important points will be dis- 
cussed here. The rectangular system of surveys, in common 
use in this country, will be considered first. 

Principal Meridians. — These are north-and-south lines estab- 
lished as a means of control by which the east or west boundary 
lines of townships may be determined. Owing to the curvature 
of the earth's surface and to the fact that all such fines, if ex- 
tended, would converge at one point at the north, east-and-west 
correction fines are estabfished at certain intervals in order to 
efiminate as far as possible the otherwise resultant trapezoidal 
form of townships. These are known as base fines. 

Base Lines. — These are started at given pomts and are run 
due east and west. They serve as a base from which to run 
base lines and also provide increased facilities for the proper 
description or location of lands. 

Standard Parallels. — These lines are run east and west, parallel 
with base fines, at intervals of 24 miles, and serve as correction 
lines for range boundaries. Being but 24 miles apart, they pro- 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 193 

vide for the elimination of practically all convergence of north- 
and-south lines. 

Guide Meridians. — These are run north from standard paral- 
lels at intervals of 24 miles, close on the next parallel north, 
and thus lay the country off in theoretical rectangles 24 miles 
square. These tracts are not, of course, perfect rectangles, but 
converge slightly to the north. To^vnship boundaries are laid 
off after the standard parallels and guide meridians have been 
established. 

Township Lines. — These are east-and-west lines, 6 miles apart, 
and mark the north and south boundaries of townships. The 
tract lying between them and extending from one guide me- 
ridian to the next is known as a "township," and is numbered 
north or south from the base Une from which a given survey 
is made. 

Range Lines. — Range Unes are laid off after the township lines 
have been established. They mark the east or west boundaries 
of townships and the 6-mile strip of country between them is 
known as a " range," and is numbered east or west from the 
principal meridian from which the survey is made. The estab- 
lishment of township and range lines divides the country into 
tracts 6 miles square, and these are also known as "townships." 

Section Lines. — Townships are next divided into sections, each 
of which is as nearly 1 mile square as possible. These subdivi- 
sions are made by east-and-west and north-and-south lines es- 
tabhshed at intervals of 1 mile, thus forming thirty-six sections 
to the township. When convergence of the lines prevents the 
establishment of thirty-six regular mile-square sections, the extra 
large or small sections are thrown to the north and west sides 
of the township. Instances may, but seldom do, occur where 
irregular sections may be laid off along all four sides of the 
township. 

Section Numbers. — Beginning with No. 1, which is at the 
northeast corner of the township, the series proceeds westward 
to the northwest corner of the township, where section No. 6 is 
found. No. 7 is immediately south of this, and the series then 
proceeds eastward to No. 12, which is south of No. 1. No. 13 
is south of 12 and 18 is south of 7. Section 19 is south of 18 
and 24 is south of 13. Section 25 is south of 24, 30 is south of 
19, and 36 is south of 25 at the southeast corner of the township. 

Section Subdivisions. — A system of subdivisions has boon de- 



194 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

vised whereby tracts of less than a section may. be described. 
I<]ach boundary Hne of a section is marked at the center with a 
" quarter " corner, and a hne from one such corner to the one 
directly opposite divides a section into halves. It is divided 
into quarters by connecting the corners on the other sides. 
Quarter sections are divided in a similar manner into " quarter- 
quarter " sections. These may be divided into '* quarter-quar- 
ter-quarter " sections and these into " quarter-quarter-quarter- 
quarter " sections, each of which contains two and one-half 
acres. It will be seen, therefore, that so long as its boundary 
lines coincide with those made possible by a regular survey a 
very small tract of land can be described or located. 

Land Descriptions. — It is especially important that the field 
man familiarize himself with methods used in describing lands, 
and as the subject is such a simple one he should have no trouble 
in mastering it. 

Sections. — The first thing given in the general description is 
the exact description of a section or its subdivisions. Next 
comes the township number, north or south of a base line, and 
the range number, east or west of a meridian, follows. Usually 
the name or number of the principal meridian or base line is 
also given. 

Thus several sections might be described as: Sections 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, and 6 (or Sections 1-6, inclusive), Township Twelve North, 
Range One East, of a certain meridian and base line. The 
abbreviated form of this description would be: Sees. 1-6, T., 
12 N., R. 1 E., etc. 

Half Sections. — Three hundred and twenty acres, embracing 
exactly one-half section, might be described as: The West Half 
of Section One, Township Twelve North, Range One East of 



-I 






Fig. 184. 



a certain meridian and base line. Abbreviated it would read: 
W/2 Sec. 1, T. 12 N., R. 1 E., etc. See Fig. 184. If located 
in both halves of the section it might read: The East HaK of 
the West Half and the West Half of the East Half, or E/2 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



195 



W/2 and W/2 E/2. It might also be described as: The East 
Half of the Northwest quarter, the East HaK of the Southwest 
quarter, the West HaK of the Northeast quarter, and the West 
HaK of the Southeast quarter. Abbreviated: E/2 NW74; E/2 
SW/4; W/2 NE/4; and W/2 SE/4. 

Quarter Sections. — One hundred and sixty acres located ex- 
actly in one regular quarter-section might be described: The 
Northwest quarter of a given section. If included in two regular 
quarter-sections, as shown in Fig. 185, it might read: N/2 SW/4 



S'on 


^ 








« 





























S/2 NWM 






n;2 |ew/* 






i 1. 





n;/ S.v/4 





~ 
















s. 


T'l' 


fl 




S/2 















n;2 W/4 


^ 



Fig. 185. 



and S/2 NW/4. The same acreage, differently located would 
read: W/2 NW/4 and N/2 SW/4. Lying in this shape it 
would be known as an " L." If it should embrace N/2 SW/'4, 
NW74 SE/4, and SE/4 SW/4, it would be known as a " T." 
If it covered NE/4 SW/4, NWV4 SE/4, and S/2 SE/4, it would 
be designated as a " Z." 

Quarter- Quarter Sections. — These embrace an area of forty 
acres and are described as SW/4 SW/4, or otherwise according 
to the actual location. 

Quarter- Quarter- Quarter Sections. — Such subdivisions em- 





1 




-H 




1 




1 







1 












^ 















Fig. 186. 



Fig. 187. 



brace ten-acre tracts. The one illustrated in Fig. 1S6 would 
be described as SE/4 SW/4 NE/4. 

Quarter- Quarter- Quarter- Quarter Sections.— These tracts in- 



196 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

elude two and one-half acres, and if laid off as shown in Fig. 187 
would be described as SE/4 SW/4 NE/4 SW/4. 

Other Descriptions. — One hundred and sixty acres lying in 
two sections of the same township and range as shown in Fig. 
188 would be described as: S/2 NW/4, Sec. 3 and E/2 NE/4, Sec. 
4, T. 12 N., R. 1 E. Eighty acres, located in two sections, in 



4 1 1 3 

QJ 1-1 

CO 



Fig. 188. 



the same range but in different townships, as in Fig. 189, would 
read: SE/4 SE/4, Sec. 34, T. il N., and NE/4 NE/4, Sec. 3, 
T. 10 N., all in R. 1 E. Two hundred acres, located in different 
sections and in different townships and 
ranges, as in Fig. 190, would read: W/2 
SW/4, Sec. 31, T. 11 N., R. 2 E; SE/4 
SE/4, Sec. 36, T. 11 N., R.l E; NE/4 NE/4, 
Sec. 1, T. 10 N., R. 1 E; and NW/4 NW/4, 
Sec. 6, T. 10 N., R. 2 E. If the township 
line in Fig. 190 should be a base hne and 
the range Hne a principal meridian, then 
the land in sections 31 and 36 would be 
described as east and west, respectively, 
of the meridian, and north of the base Une, 
while that in sections 6 and 1 would be 
described as also east and west, respectively, 
of the meridian, but south of the base line. 
Corners.— Only section and quarter-section corners were set in 
the original surveys made by the United States Land Office. 
Unfortunately no one system of marking the corners seems to 
have been followed. In most parts of the middle West and in 
many parts of the South stones were set, and witness trees, usu- 
ally four at section corners and two at quarter-corners, wei'e 







































.1 


own? 


hip 


^ine 




11 N. 












ION' 







































Fig. 189. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



197 



blazed and scribed with the section, township, and range numbers. 
In other locaUties pits were dug and mounds thrown up. In 
later surveys, particularly in the West and Southwest, stones 
were set at the corners and chiseled, as shown in Fig. 191. Quar- 





















. 
























i5 




01 


























Tow 


iship 








Line 




Til 


















Tl( 








a 
















■ 


"i 































Fig. 190. 



ter-corner stones in these surveys were chiseled " 34 " on their 
west face in north-and-south Hues, and in east-and-west hues the 
north face bore a similar inscription. Where trees were blazed 
as witnesses a second blaze near the ground was scribed " B T " 
or " W T," the initial letters of " Bearing Tree " and " Witness 
Tree," respectively. Such blazes should not be confused with 
the marks left by porcupines , or with the numerous crosses cut 
through the bark by a religious sect known as the " Penitentes." 

Throughout portions of the South, particularly Arkansas and 
Missouri, which were surveyed between 1840 and 1850, the 
blazes on witness trees have been covered with a new growth 
of wood and can be distinguished only after the closest scrutiny. 
Most of these trees, however, have been blown or burned down, 
and very few of the original corners can be located except with 
instruments. 

Metes and Bounds Surveys. — Land hnes in most parts of the 
Southeast and in certain parts of the East were not established 



198 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 















„„t 




6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 








8 


9 


10 


11 


12 






18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 






19 . 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24^ 






30 , 


29 


28 ^ 


27 


2C 


25 




mil 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 : 





Fig. 191. — ^A common meth- 
od of marking section cor- 
ners. Used chiefly in the 
West. 



under the rectangular system of surveys, but were run and de- 
scribed by angles and courses tied to some permanent natural 
landmark. Such a hne might be described as follows: " Be- 
ginning at the highest point on ( ) Peak, County of 

( ), State of ( ), running thence S 24° E, 11.25 C; 

thence, S 42° E, 20.10 C; thence 
S 14° W, 11.25 C; thence S 20° 
E, 12.40 C; " and so on, finally 
closing the survey at the point of 
beginning. 

Surveying Crews and Their Work. 
— Ordinarily a surveying crew con- 
sists of the surveyor, or " transit 
man " or " compass-man," two 
chainmen, an axman, and flagman. 
The first superintends and is respon-^ 
sible for all work done, the chainmen 
measure distances, the axman re- 
moves brush that may interfere with 
any of the operations of surveying, and the flagman works in ad- 
vance of the rest of the party, indicating under instructions from 
the surveyor where the line is to run. The proper point at which 
to set his flag is made known to him by the surveyor, who sig- 
nals with his arms, or by other means previously agreed upon. 
Assuming that a line is being run north and the flagman has not 
moved far enough east, this fact is made known to him by the 
surveyor, who extends his right arm, vertically if the distance 
is small, horizontally if great, intermediate distances being indi- 
cated by proportionate movements of the arm between the ver- 
tical and horizontal. If the flagman is to move to the west, the 
surveyor signals with his left arm. The flagman is to under- 
stand that he has reached the desired point when the surveyor 
raises and lowers, in quick succession, both arms simultaneously. 
He usually repeats this signal u^til he is sure the flagman has 
observed it, such observation on the part of the flagman gener- 
ally being indicated by* his repetition of the signal after the pomt 
of the flag has struck the ground. 

If he has gone too far along the line the flagman may be 
brought back by a circular motion of the surveyor's upHfted 
arm, given at a time when the flagman happens to glance back. 
He is sent farther along the line when the surveyor Raises his 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 190 

arm and drops it forward. Or, when previously agreed upon, 
other signals may be used. These two men should, how- 
ever, have a thorough understanding of all signals to be 
used. 

The flag should be held squarely before the flagman's body, 
the point directly over the opening of the " Y " formed by the 
flagman's feet as he stands erect, facing the surveyor. It should 
be gripped loosely between the thumb and forefinger of either 
hand at a point about on a level with the flagman's chest. 
This allows the pole to hang vertically and to fall straight 
down to the ground as soon as the grip is released. Later 
it is planted firmly and left standing imtil the surveyor 
arrives. It often happens that as the result of improper 
fight, or the interference of brush or other obstacles, the 
survej^or is unable to see the flag imless it is held before the 
flagman in such a way that his clothing acts as a background; 
even then the pole may not be visible to the surveyor, but he wiU 
be able to ascertain its approximate location by reference to the 
flagman. 

In clearing away brush from the line of sight, the axman needs 
only to hack it in one side and then bend it sidewise out of line 
and at right angles to the course, thus leaving a comparatively 
free opening for the chainmen to pass through. 

A general rule in chaining is to use eleven pins, although many 
surveyors contend that ten are much more convenient, and that 
by their use mistakes are much less lilvely to occur. If eleven 
are used, one is set at the starting point and another is used at 
the end of every chain thereafter until ten chains ( a, " taUy " ) 
have been measm-ed off. When the rear chainman transfers the 
pins to the front chaimnan at the end of a taUy, the last pin 
stuck is left sticking in the ground. Each time such transfers 
are made both men should count the pins to see that none has 
been overlooked and left behind. The best plan is for each to 
check the other as chaining proceeds. For instance, when the 
fiont man sticks his pin he may call out " Stuck!" and as the 
rear man recovers a pin he may caU " Pin! " 

In order to keep accurate count of the taUies chained, it is 
weU for each man to record the number in some tangible method 
— i.e., he should not attempt to keep the munber in mind, 
but should keep check on it by means of pebbles, one placed in 
his pocket at the end of each tally, or should record it in a 



200 HANDBOOK FOE EANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

note-book, or use some other means of record that can not be 
questioned. 

Horizontal, or " level," chaining over rough country may 
necessitate " breaking " the chain. When this is done only a 
portion of the chain is used, thereby facihtating leveUng. Most 
chains are equipped with a ring and snap at the middle, and 
in such work these may be loosened and the chain divided in 
half; otherwise a certain number of links must be used each 
time. If a half-chain is used, the eleven pins may be used to 
tally five chains instead of ten. Errors invariably occur when 
pins are thrown forward by the rear man to be used by the 
front man again in the same tally. 

If steep slopes are to be level chained the reai man, when 
ascent is being made, raises his end of the chain until it is di- 
rectly over the last pin stuck and as nearly as possible on a level 
with the front end. The front man is notified that the next pin 
may be stuck, and chaining proceed. In making a descent, the 
front man raises his end of the chain to a level with the rear 
end, holds his pin loosely, and then allows it to fall, point down- 
ward, when the rear man is ready. He then sets the pin firmly 
at the point where it first struck. 

THE STANDARD FOREST SERVICE COMPASS 

This instrument is so simple in construction that there should 
be no difficulty experienced in mastering a knowledge of its 
adaptability to a multitude of uses. The base is of aluminum 
and is 4 inches square. Its edges are beveled, and one bears a 
4-inch rule graduated in ^/lo-inches, while another bears a 
similar rule indicating 3^-inches; the other two edges are gradu- 
ated in degrees and half degrees and may be used as a pro- 
tractor, thus rendering the instrument very useful in field 
mapping. A small level is attached to each of two corners, 
and these are used in leveling th.e instrument when it is set up. 

At another corner is a milled nut which tightens or releases 
the lever that raises the needle from the center-pivot point. 
This nut should be kept screwed down when the compass is not 
in use; otherwise the needle wiU be allowed to swing about and 
soon the pivot-point wiU become worn or dulled to an extent 
that renders the use of the needle very unsatisfactory.. How- 
ever, care must be taken to see that the nut is loosened and the 
needle allowed to swing clear when the compass is being used. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 201 

It may seem that no field man would attempt to run a line 
with a tightl}^ clamped needle, but as a matter of fact this very 
thing often occurs, the result, of course, of carelessness. 

Suspended from the center pivot is a pendulum-hke attach- 
ment known as a cUnometer and supplied for the purpose of 
determining grades or elevations. It swings across an arc of 
180 degrees, numbered from naught at the center to 90 on either 
end. To use the clinometer, the compass sights are opened and 
the base is held as nearly vertical as possible, allowing the chnom- 
eter to swing freely. The sights are then trained on the objec- 
tive point, and the base is tipped carefully until the clinometer 
rests against it and becomes stationary. 

The compass face is then turned carefully toward the ob- 
server and the reading is made, not in per cent but in degrees. 
If a per cent reading is required, a. table, showing the relative 
values of per cent and degrees, must be consulted. For such 
a table see page, 354, Appendix. 

A vernier attachment will be found on the side opposite the 
clinometer. This works over 44 degrees on one side and 27 
degrees on the other side of naught, or no variation. Care must 
be taken in using ,it to see that variations are not reversed. If 
the vernier is not used it is very necessary that the operator l^e 
thoroughly conversant with the subject of variations; other- 
wise improper readings may be made and recorded. 

Just above and attached to the base is a circle of 360 degrees 
numbered from naught, or " N " and " S," to 90 on the east 
and west points, according to the style of the compass. One 
style has the initial letter of each cardinal direction stamped 
on the circle, while another bears a star, or similar design, in- 
stead of " N," and " O " at other points instead of " S," " E," 
and " W." The style bearing initial letters of cardinal direc- 
tions is so lettered as to lead a novice to believe that the manu- 
factm-er made a mistake and reversed the " E " and " W." In 
order that he may thoroughly understand this method of con- 
struction, the field man should turn his compass so the hair 
sight, which is always the front sight, is immediately over the 
north end of the needle after the needle has been released and 
allowed to settle. He wiU find that a fine projected from the 
rear sight through the front sight will run north, no allowance 
being made for variation in this particular case. Turning the 
hair sight 90 degrees to his left, or to the west, he will observe 



202 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

that the character which indicates West falls directly beneath 
the north end of the needle; turning it 90 degrees still further 
to his left, or to the south, he will notice the character which 
indicates South exactly beneath the north end of the needle; 
and turning still 90 degrees farther he will see that the character 
which indicates East is under the north end of the needle. It 
follows, therefore, that the character beneath the north end of 
the needle indicates the direction in which the sights are trained. 
If the north end of the needle is directly above 20 in the arc 
between "N" and "E" the reading is: "North, 20 degrees 
East," and is so recorded. If it points to 17 in the arc between 
': N '' and " W," then the reading is: " North, 17 degrees West." 
If it indicates the figure 89 in the arc between " S " and " E," 
the reading is: " South, 89 degrees East." Pomting to 2 in the 
arc between " S " and " W " the reading is: " South, 2 degrees 
West." It will be observed from this that all readings begin 
either from north or south, the variation eastward or westward 
being expressed in degrees after the directions north and south 
have been read. Readings are recorded in the same manner in 
which they are made. 

The sights are hinged to the base in such a way that they may 
be folded down across the glass face of the compass when not 
in use. The hair sight is always folded down first. 

Around the glass will be found another circle divided into 
360 degrees. Inasmuch as this circle is movable, readings should 
not be based upon it. Origkially this form of compass was in- 
tended for underground work where wires were used in the slots 
when readings were taken. 

On the under side of the square base, at one corner, will be 
found a diagram of a township divided into sections, each of 
which is numbered. 

At the center of the under side will be found a shallow hole 
into which the upper end of the support is screwed. This sup- 
port consists of a cylindrical socket into which one end of a ball- 
and-socket joint fits. The two are held together by means of a 
screw working in a groove in the pinion. Rotary motion of the 
socket about the pinion may be prevented by turning this screw 
up tight, but if necessary it may be left loose enough to allow 
such motion and still prevent endwise separation of the two 
pieces. At the lower end of the pinion a ball fits into a hollow 
circular nut attached to the upper end of another socket made 



GENERA.L FIELD WORK 



203 



to fit over the end of a Jacob's staff or on to a tripod. In some 
instruments this nut has a notch in one side deep enough to 
allow the pinion at the ball to be tipped sidewise at right angles 
to the staff, thus permitting the use of the clinometer. 

If a compass is to be stored away for any length of time it 
should be placed with the magnetized end of the needle to the 
north; otherwise a partially demagnetized needle may be the 
result. If it is to be carried in an electrically propelled vehicle 
it should not be placed near a motor or djTiamo. While being 
used in the field metallic objects subject to magnetic action should 
not be allowed near it; even a heavy pocket knife, in close 
proximity to a very sensitive needle, may deflect it from a true 
course, and sm-vejdng pins or axes should be kept at a distance. 

VARIATION 
A diagrammatical explanation of variation will be found in 
Fig. 192. This drawing should not be considered as precisely 
accurate or even drawn to scale; it is purposely distorted in 




Fig. 192. — ^\'ariation. 



order to facihtate the explanation and is sufficiently' accurat(> 
for that purpose. 

The location of the magnetic pole is not, as may be supposed, 
exactly at the north pole, but its situation with reference to 
the latter is similar to that shown in the illustration. Assuming 
that a compass is set up at 2, it will be seen that a straight Une 
may be drawn from it through the circle to the north pole, and 



204 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

that there is no variation at this point, because the compass, the 
magnetic pole, and the north pole are all in the same line. But, 
observed from 1, the magnetic pole varies to the west of the 
north pole, while from 6 it varies to the east, and from 3 the 
eastern variation is still greater. Therefore, if a hne is to be 
run due north, it is necessary that the sights be in line with the 
north pole while the needle points to the magnetic pole. 

The degrees of variation, at different points throughout the 
country, can most easily be seciu-ed about 9 p.m. The sights 
should be trained on the pole star, after the compass has been 
set on a firm table or post, and the needle should be released. 
It should be clamped as soon as it settles, and the difference in 
degrees between its north end and the corresponding compass 
sight will be the variation at that particular point. This varia- 
tion is not, however, the same at all points along a line pro- 
jected through the sights; it is subject to an irregular daily and 
annual increase and decrease and to local attraction. 

The subject should be studied thoroughly from charts sup- 
pUed for the purpose. 

TRAVERSE TABLES 

These are compiled for the pur|)Ose of indicating how groat 
a distance has been covered in two directions following lines at 
right angles to each other when the diagonal distance has been 
obtained. In other words, they indieate the base and altitude 
of a right-angled triangle when the line of travel or the hy- 
potenuse has been run. Thus, assuming that a surveyor is 
running a line N. 35° E. from a section hne, he may, upon 
reaching a point 80 rods from where he started, require the 
distance due west to the section hne. By referring to the trav- 
erse table he finds that in running at an angle of 35 degrees 
he departs from the section hne .574 as far as he has 
actually travelled and that in this particular case he stands 
11.48 rods due east of the section line. If he has occasion to 
ascertain how far north he may be of an east-and-west line 
extended through the starting point, his traverse table shows 
that his " latitude " is .819 of the distance he has traveled, or 
in this case 16.38 rods. If he has run 20 rods due north and 
then requires the distance due east to a point N. 25° E. of the 
starting point, the table shows him that the length of the north 
and south line is .906 of the Hne from the starting point to the 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 205 

point in question. Accordingly, he divides 20 by .906 and finds 
that the diagonal hne is approximately 22 rods long. Further 
reference to the table shows that when a hne is run at an angle 
of 25 degi'ees the departure is .423 of the distance traveled, and 
since the latter in this case would have been 22 rods he finds 
that the point is approximately 9.30 rods east. 

For traverse table of degrees only, see page 357, Appendix. 

FIRE FIGHTING 

Fire Trespass. — Acts which constitute fire trespass and which 
are prohibited on National Forest lands are shown on page 22, 
U. B., 1915, as foUow: 

Reg. T-1. The following acts are prohibited on lands of the United 
States within National Forests: 

(A) Setting on fire or causing to be set on fire any timber, brush, 
or grass: Provided, however, That this regulation shall not be 
construed to prohibit the building of necessary- camp fires or 
other fires for domestic or manufacturing piu-poses. 

(B) Bmlding a camp fire in leaves, rotten wood, or other places 
where it is Ukely to spread, or against large or hollow logs or 
stumps, where it is diflicult to extinguish it completely. 

(C) Building a camp fire in a dangerous place, or dm-ing windy 
weather, without confining it to holes or cleared spaces from 
which all vegetable matter has been removed. 

(D) Leaving a camp fire without completely extinguishing it. 

(E) Using steam engines or steam locomotives in operations on 
National Forest lands tmder any timber-sale contract or under 
any peimit, unless they are equipped with such spark arresters 
as shall be approved by the forest supervisor, or unless oil is 
used exclusively for fuel. 

Under the subject of Rewards on page 24, U. B., 1915, further 
official instructions are given as follow: 

Reg. T-2. Hereafter, provided Congress shall make the necessary 

appropriation or authorize the payment thereof, the Department of 

Agriculture will pay the following rewards : 

First. Not exceeding $250 and not less than $50 for information 
leading to the arrest and conviction of any person, in anj' United 
States courts on the charge of wilfully and mahciouslj- setting 
on fire, or causing to be set on fire, any timber, underbrush, or 
grass upon the lands of the United States within a National 
Forest. 

Second. Not exceeding $100 and not less than $25 for information 
leading to the arrest and conviction of any person, in any United 
States court, on the charge of building a fire on lands of the 
United States within a National Forest, in or near any forest 



206 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

timber or other inflammable material, aad leaving said fire 
before the same has been totally extinguished. 

Third. AU officers and employees of the Department of Agriculture 
are barred from receiving reward for information leading to the 
arrest and conviction of any person or persons committing either 
of the above offenses. 

Fourth. The Department of Agriculture reserves the right to refuse 
payment of any claim for reward when, in its opinion, there has 
been collusion or improper methods have been used to secure the 
arrest and conviction thereunder, and to allow only one reward 
where several persons have been convicted of the same offense or 
where one person has been convicted of several offenses, iinless 
the circmnstances entitle the claimant to a reward on each such 
conviction. 

These rewards will be paid to the person or persons giving the 
information leading to such arrests and convictions upon pres- 
entation to the Department of Agriculture of satisfactory 
documentary evidence thereof, subject to the necessary appropri- 
ation, as aforesaid, or otherwise, as may be provided by law. 
Apphcations for reward, made in pursuance of this notice, should 
be forwarded to the Forester, Washington, D. C; but a claim 
will not be_ entertained vmless presented within three months 
from the date of conviction of an offender. 

In order that aU claimants for a reward may have an opportunity 
to present their claims within the prescribed limit, the depart- 
ment wiU not take action for three months from date of convic- 
tion of an offender. The above is applicable to offenses commit- 
ted since July 1, 1910. 

Under the subject of Cooperation in Enforcing State Fii-e 
Laws on page 25, U. B., 1915, further official instructions are 
given as foUow: 

Reg. P-1. All forest ofl&cers will cooperate with State officials, so 
far as practicable, to enforce State laws for the prevention and 
extinguishment of forest fires. When authorized to do so by the 
proper State officers, they will, without additional pay, act as 
fire wardens with full power to enforce the local laws. 

Under the subject of Fire Protection Cooperative Agreements 
on page 25, U. B., 1915, further official instructions follow: 
Reg. P-2. The Forest Service shall, whenever possible, and is hereby 
authorized to, enter into such agreements with private owners of 
timber, with railroads, and with other industrial concerns oper- 
ating in or near the National Forests as wiU result in mutual 
benefit in the prevention and suppression of forest fires; pro- 
vided, that the service required of each party by such agreements 
shall be in proportion to the benefits conferred. 

Patrol. — Thorough and systematic patrol is the first essential 
in the question of forest fire control, If a carefully planned 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 207 

system of patrol prevails fires may be attacked in their incipi- 
ency and extinguished or controlled with httle difficulty. 
Patrolmen should be required to travel along high ridges or 
other points from where the greatest territories subject to fire 
danger may be watched. Upon discovering a fire they should 
report that fact to the proper officers without delay. 

Equipment. — The equipment generallj^ provided for fire fight- 
ing consists of axes, saws, rakes, shovels, wooden or wore brooms, 
and such other articles as may be used to advantage in quick 
suppression of fires. Rakes and shovels may prove most effec- 
tive in one locahty, but large loose stones, thick underbrush, or 
other topographical featm-es or vegetable growths may render 
them worthless in another. Consequently, before tools are 
requisitioned, the field man must exercise care and judgment 
in determining just what articles ^dll prove most effective in his 
particular district or in the district in which the tools are to 
be used. 

Tool Caches. — These should be located at points easily acces- 
sible from large territories in which fires may be expected to 
occur. They should contain such tools as can best be utilized 
in those particular sections and should be kept under lock and 
key in order to prevent their removal or destruction by unau- 
thorized or mahciously incUned persons. The patrolman should 
have an itemized hst of the number and kind of tools kept at 
such caches and should be sufficientl}^ famihar with the location 
of each cache to enable him to reach them without delay whether 
a fire is reported in the daytime or at night. 

Immediate Action. — Unless specifically instructed to the con- 
iTary, a field man is expected to proceed immediately to any fii'e 
that may be reported in the district assigned to his care. If the 
fire occurs at a point on the boundary^ line of his district, or a 
short distance across on another district, or on lands not -s^ithin 
the National Forest, he is governed by whatever orders his 
superior officer may have issued on that subject. 

Preliminary Inspection. — Upon his arrival at a fire of great 
size, possible danger, or difficult control, he should make a careful 
inspection of all advantages offered by natural barriers to the 
flames. These include such items as water courses, ridges, cliffs, 
canons, and the absence of inflammable material at points 
where the ffi'e may be attacked. Usually it is possible to utihze 
such conditions to good advantage, and without their due con- 



208 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

sideration the suppression of a fire may require hours or even 
days of extra time, labor, and expense. 

Procedure Following Preliminary Inspection. — As soon as the 
preUminary inspection has been completed the officer in charge 
should proceed to put into effect whatever course of action he 
may have decided upon. If the fight promises to be of several 
days' duration and will involve the services of a large number 
of men he should take immediate steps to secure the necessary 
labor. He should also see that the proper tools are available, 
that suitable camp sites are selected, and the camps arranged in 
most advantageous manner, that cooks, teamsters, and foremen 
are selected from among the most experienced men, and that 
every possible precaution is taken to systematize the work and 
to carry out a definitely fixed plan of operation as quickly and 
effectively as conditions wiU permit. 

Classification of Fires. — In a general way fire may be divided 
into three principal classes, viz.: 

(1) Ground Fires; (2) Surface Fires; (3) Crown Fires. 

(1) Ground Fires. — These occur in regions where several years' 
accumulation of leaves, twigs, branches, and old logs forms a 
sort of peat or spongy mass which may burn or smoulder be- 
neath the surface of the ground for days or even months. 
They are especially common to the Northeast. 

(2) Surface Fires. — These consume the litter scattered over 
the surface of the ground. In thick beds of leaves, in old cuttings 
where slash is abundant, and in locaUties where numerous dead 
dry logs and stumps appear, they may prove very difficult to 
control. They are common to aU timbered portions of this 
country. 

(3) Crown Fires. — These are sometimes known as " top " 
fires and occur usually as the result of severe surface fires from 
which the flames pass to and ignite the trunks and tops of stand- 
ing timber. They may be expected to occur when a combina- 
tion of climatic conditions, such as extremely high winds during 
very dry weather, is especially favorable. They are common 
to areas where timber appears in dense stands such as are found 
in many parts of the Northwest. 

Control. — (1) Ground Fires. — It is usually possible to control 
these by means of trenches cut through the peat to solid earth. 
Such trenches should be not less than 2 feet wide and should 
be absolutely free from all combustible material. Caution must 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 209 

be exercised not to step accidentally on a place where the surface 
may give way and allow the workman to be precipitated into 
the live coals beneath. 

(2) Surface Fires. — A variety of methods may be resorted to 
in the control of surface fires. In sandy locahties where brush 
does not occur in dense stands, rakes may be used to clean out 
a wide path ahead of the fire. This should be at least 4 feet 
wide, wider if a strong wind is blowing. Where shovels can 
be used dirt or sand may be thrown on the flames, burning 
chunlvs or pieces of logs and branches may be buried, and trenches 
may be dug or paths shoveled out. Wire or wooden brooms 
may be used to rake away inflammable material from long strips 
ahead of and parallel with the fire hne. Wire flails may be 
used in beating out the flames if these are not too hot to be 
approached and worked over. Bundles of bushes may be used 
in the same manner, or a small bush with a heavy growth of 
foHage may be utihzed, as may also wet saddle blankets, gunny 
sacks, and blankets. In rough, rocky regions picks or mattocks 
may be necessary before the fire can be controlled. They are 
used in removing stone or rock, so shovels may be used later 
in cleaning off a bare' strip of ground. Certain bags have been 
devised for use in fighting fires with water, but their use is of 
course limited to sections in which plenty of water is available. 
Chemical fire extinguishers have also been used.^ 

(3) Crown Fires. — The chief method of control used in fighting 
these fires is to clear away the standing timber on a strip of 

1 See Bui. 113, U. S. Department of Agriculture, "Methods and 
Apparatus for the Prevention and Control of Forest Fires, as Ex- 
emplified on the Arkansas National Forest," by Daniel W. Adams. 

See also the following: Bui. 117, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
"Forest Fires: Their Causes, Extent, and Effects, With a Summary of 
Recorded Destruction and Loss," by Fred G. Phmimer. 

Cir. 205, U. S. Department of Agriculture, "Forest Fire Protection 
Under the Weeks Law in Cooperation with States," by J. Girvin 
Peters. 

Bui. 82, U. S. Department of Agricultm-e, "Protection of Forests 
from Fire," by Henry S. Graves. 

Bui. Ill, U. S. Department of AgricultTire, "Lightning in Relation to 
Forest Fires," by Fred G. Plummer. 

"Fire Prevention and Control on National Forests," by S. C. 
Bartrum. 

"Better Methods of Fire Control," by W. B. Greeley. 

"National Forest Fire-Protection Plans/' by Coert Du Bois. 

"Light Burning in California Forests," by F. E. Olmstead 



210 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

ground from 75 to 100 or more feet in width. It may be found 
necessary in severe fires to clear two such strips parallel with 
each other and from 50 to 100 yards apart. The inflammable 
material on the intervening space is then fired, and this presents 
a check to the approaching fire. Such lines must of course be 
well in advance of the main fire line. 

Fighting the Flames. — This should not be done in an irregular 
or unsystematic manner. Action should be moderately rapid, 
but not to an extent that will cause complete physical exhaus- 
tion in a few minutes. When rest, food, and sleep become nec- 
essary a reliable man should be placed in charge of operations 
until the field man is again able to resume supervision. Where 
two or more field men are present they may work in shifts of 
so many hours each, depending upon their number. This per- 
mits an officer to be in charge during the entire fight. 

Patrolling the Backline. — Patrol of the backline, or the edge 
of the burned-over area, is the most important part of fire con- 
trol. Only the most rehable men should be detailed to such 
work and they should be extremely careful to see that all burn- 
ing logs, chunks, branches, and similar articles are throv^m well 
buck on the burned-over area. If such removal is impossible 
care must be taken to see that sparks do not blow from them 
to unburned territory and start another fire. Such work should 
not be centered at one point along the line, but should be dis- 
tributed along the entire line, the patrolmen going along the 
line at regular intervals until all danger is past. This should be 
continued for several days if dry, windy weather follows suppres- 
sion of the fire. Burning trees standing near the edge of the 
burned-over area should be felled backward on it when this 
can be done. Otherwise they should be felled and then care- 
fully burned around after the upstanding branches have been 
cut away and compactly piled. 

FIELD COOKINGi 

Since cooking faciUties in the field are necessarily limited, only 
the simplest recipes are given here, and it is suggested that the 
novice take advantage of his spare moments to experiment with 
other and more complicated dishes. 

^ For list of provisions and supplies required and for table of cooking 
utensils necessary for from one to thirty men see "Fire Prevention and 
Control on National Forests," tables 2 and 3, by S. C. Bartrum. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 211 

A few general rules which will be of assistance to the beginner 
are offered. Chief among these is the mixing together of dry 
ingredients before liquids are added; the latter are then also 
mixed together, and finally the two mixtures are added together. 
This rule holds good in all cases unless specific advice to the 
contrary is given. Another point to be borne in mind is the 
fact that actual experience is essential to the best cooking and 
that satisfactory results can not always be obtained merely by 
follo-^-ing a given recipe. Ingredients may vary in strength of 
quahty, fuel may not supply the proper heat, altitude has its 
effect, the water used has more, milk, which should be sour, may 
be only " turned," or the same condition may exist in milk 
that should be sweet. It should be borne in mind also that 
nothing definite on the subject of seasoning can be offered, since 
individual tastes differ so widely that they must be considered 
in every case. A recipe therefore can be considered only as a 
general guide and must be varied to suit local conditions. As a 
result the field man who is unable to exercise any ingenuity can 
never hope to become a proficient cook. 

Canned Foods. — Camp food, or " chuck " or " grub," as it 
may be known in the camp vernacular, consists largely of canned 
meats, fruits, and vegetables, and as these undergo a more or 
less extensive process of cooking at the time they are canned 
they do not require a great amount of cooking prior to being 
ser^^ed. With the exception of milk, which may stand in the 
open can for several days and not spoil, all canned goods should 
be removed from the can to glass, porcelain, or enamelware dishes 
immediately after the can is opened. This is especially true of 
acidulous fruits and also applies especially to meats. Chemical 
action may occur and render the foods poisonous if they are 
left exposed to air in the opened can. Care must be taken not 
to transfer them to other tin or iron dishes. 

Bread. — Crackers will not prove satisfactory on extended trips 
and baker's bread soon becomes tii'esome. Consequently camp- 
made bread is a necessity, but instead of presenting the difficult 
problem its preparation may appear to be, it is, in fact, a simple 
process. 

Where quick meals are required the bread may be made in 
the form of biscuits or " flapjacks," but if a camp is in the 
nature of a semi-permanent establishment, then a more elaborate 
system of cooking may be followed. 



212 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

The chief item in baking good bread is to have the oven hot 
when the dough is placed in it. Otherwise the bread will be . 
heavy and unpalatable. 

Sour Dough Bread. — Make a batter of flour and water and 
let this stand ui a warm place until fermentation occurs. A half- 
pint of the fermented mixture is equal to a cupful of old yeast. 
Sour dough bread is made by adding a cupful of flour and a 
teaspoonful of salt to a cupful of the fermented mixture. If a 
ta]3lespoonful of sugar is also added the bread will brown better 
in baking. Sour dough biscuits are made in a similar manner 
except that more flour is added and the dough made stiffer. 
The bread or biscuits should be baked in a hot oven. 

Sour dough flapjacks must of course be made from much 
thinner batter than is used either for bread or biscuits. 

A permanent supply of the fermented mixture may be kept 
on hand by replacing an amount equal to that removed at each 
baking, the '' starter " being kept in a jar provided for that 
purpose. 

Yeast Bread. — Add a teacupful of yeast to three teacupfuls 
of cold water, stir in sufficient flour to make a stiff batter and 
let it stand overnight. In the morning mix again till the 
batter is quite stiff. Bake in a well-greased pan in a hot 
oven. 

The variety of yeast most commonly used in camp is known 
as " potato " yeast and is made as foUows: Confine a handful 
of hops in a small bag and boil with two average size potatoes. 
Mash the latter when they are well done and add to them two 
cups of flour. Scald this mixture with the water in which the 
potatoes were boiled. When this has cooled add to it one yeast 
cake well soaked in warm water. The yeast cake may be pro- 
cured at any grocery store. 

Salt Rising Bread. — This is not as palatable as yeast bread, 
but is prepared with less trouble and bakes much more quickly. 
Scald haK a teacupful of meal with haK a pint of boihng sweet 
milk, add sugar and salt to suit, then let the mixture stand in 
a warm place overnight. Next morning scald a teaspoonful 
of salt, the same amount of sugar and half as much soda, with 
a pint of boiUng water. Add this to the mixture prepared the 
night before and stiffen the whole with as much flour as may 
be required. Mix it quite stiff when it has become sufficiently 
fight after having been left in another vessel hung in a kettle 



geateral field work 213 

of warm water. Add a tablespoonful of lard before 
molding into loaves. Bake in a well-greased pan in a hot 
oven. 

Baking Powder Bread. — Mix a tablespoonful of baking powder 
and a teaspoonful of salt into a pint of flour. Stir thoroughly 
until the tln-ee are well mixed, then add water or milk and stir 
again. These should be added in quantities sufficient to make 
the dough as thick or thin as desired. The dough should be 
worked or handled as little as possible and should be baked in 
a well-greased pan in a hot oven. As soon as the water or milk 
l:)egins to mix with the baking powder a gas forms that makes 
the bread light. If the dough is worked much this gas escapes 
before the dough beconies hard enough on top to keep it con- 
fined. Heavy bread is the result. 

Potato Bread. — Boil foiu- medium-size potatoes for each loaf 
of bread to be baked. TVTien these are well done mash them 
thoroughly, then add two teacupfuls of flour and mix. Scald 
the mixture with the potato water. Knead well and let the 
dough stand overnight. Knead again the next morning and 
let it rise before molding into loaves. 

Rye Bread. — Use ,the same sponge as for wheat or '^ fight " 
bread and let it stand overnight. Then add a teaspoonful of 
salt, one pint each of sweet milk and water, half a teacupful of 
molasses or sugar, and stiffen the whole with rye flour. The 
dough should not be made as stiff as in wheat bread. 

Rice Bread. — Boil a teacupful of rice in a pint of water till 
tender. Add haK a pint of milk, then let the mixture cool. 
When cold add two teaspoonfuls of baking powder, half as much 
sugar, one-fourth as much salt, and one and one-haK pints of 
flom\ Mix well. 

Com Bread. — To a pint each of meal and buttermilk well 
mixed together add two eggs, two tablespoonfuls of melted lard 
or butter, one teaspoonful of soda and half as much salt, also 
well mixed together. If buttermilk can not be secured use 
water, but instead of using the soda with water a teaspoonful 
of baking powder should be used. Soda mixed with water or 
baking powder mixed with buttermilk will not produce satis- 
factory results. 

Soda Biscuits. — Dissolve a level teaspoonful of soda in a pint 
of buttermilk, then add a heaping tablespoonful of lard and a 
teaspoonful of salt. Mix thoroughly, then stir in a quart of 



214 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

flour. Let the dough rise for about twenty minutes before it 
is placed in a hot oven. 

Baking Powder Biscuits. — Prepare the same as for bread and 
cut or mold the dough into lumps the size desired. 

Johnny Cake. — Mix three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one 
teaspoonful of salt, haK a teacupful of sugar, all mixed well 
together, with two eggs and two tablespoonfuls of lard. Stir 
a quart of corn meal into a quart of sweet milk, then add the 
first mixture and stir again. If sour milk is to be used a heap- 
ing teaspoonful of soda should be substituted for the baking 
powder. Bake in a shallow pan. 

Potato Cakes. — Add an egg to three peeled and grated pota- 
toes of medium size, and salt to suit. Mix well together and 
fry in hot grease. 

Rice Cakes. — Add one and one-half pints of flour to the 
same amount of boiled rice. To this mixture add three eggs, 
a heaping teaspoonful of butter or lard, one teaspoonful of 
soda, one teacupful each of sour and sweet milk, and salt to 
suit. Bake immediately. 

Flour Cakes. — Use a quart of flour and sour milk for batter 
and let it stand overnight. Next morning dissolve a teaspoonful 
of soda in three times as much water and add it, together with 
two well-beaten eggs, to the batter. Salt to suit. Water may 
be used in lieu of sour milk, in which case use a heaping tea- 
spoonful of baking powder instead of soda. 

Buckwheat Cakes. — Add a teacupful of yeast to a quart of 
buttermilk and water, equal parts. Put in salt to suit, then 
stir in enough buckwheat flour to make a batter and let it stand 
overnight. Next morning dissolve a teaspoonful of soda in 
warm water and add it to the batter. Bake immediately 

Com Meal Mush. — Add meal to boiling water and stir well 
to prevent lumps forming. Season with salt to suit and make 
the mush as thick or thin as desired. 

Cracked Wheat Mush. — Stir a teacupful of cracked or rolled 
wheat into a quart of water and add salt to suit. Less boiling 
will be reqUked if the wheat is soaked overnight. 

Oatmeal Mush. — Add four or five tablespoonfuls of oatmeal 
to a quart of cold water, salt to suit, then boil slowly for half 
an hour, taking care to replenish the water as it boils away. 
Unless a double boiler is used the mixture should be stirred 
continually to prevent burning. 



GENERAL FIELE WORK 215 

Hominy Mush. — Soak a teacupful of hominy overnight in a 
quart of well-salted water, then boil for an hour. With cream 
and sugar this makes an excellent breakfast food. 

Cereals. — Nearly all packed cereals may be eaten raw with 
cream and sugar. However, oatmeal and cream of wheat should 
be well soaked and then boiled in salt water. This appUes also 
to rice. 

Game Meats.' — Game meats include the meat of the bear, 
deer, rabbit, squirrel, wild turkeys, ducks and geese, grouse, 
quails, partridges, and such other bii'ds and animals as may 
be considered edible. The Hst may also include opossums, 
raccoons, ground-hogs (woodchucks), hedgehogs, and snipe, 
plover, doves, pigeons, and j^ellow-hammers. Bear meat is at 
its best when the animal is killed diu-ing the autumn months 
while it is fat and immechately before the animal hibernates. 
After a season of hibernation the meat is dry and tough, no fat 
is present, and it is otherwise in such condition as to be far 
from palatable. Deer meat or venison is best in winter. 
The choicest parts are those of a fine, reddish-brown grain, 
such as the saddle, which is that part of the back from 
the ribs to the hips and which includes the hams. The 
most common and best method "of preparation is by frying. 
The meat may also be dried and kept for long periods. The 
meat of an old game animal should be made tender by par- 
boiling. This is done by boiling it in a strong solution of soda 
and water for a period of from twenty minutes to an hour. Old 
animals may be recognized by their lack of plumpness and by 
their short, yellow, worn-out teeth and scalj' claws. Young 

^ The following six niles for sportsmen in the National Forests are 
quoted from an official poster placed, before the public in vSept., 1915: 

1. Preterit Forest Fires. They destroy the htmting grounds and the 
game. 

2. Take the Game Law with You. It may be obtained from any 
Forest Officer. 

.3. Make Sure It's a Buck. It may be a Doe, a Cow. or a Man. 
How would you feel? 

4. Wet the Hand Before Removing Undersized Fish. It prevents 
breaking the mucous covering and the entrance of fatal molds. 

5. Don't Shoot Harmless Wild Life. Only Sharp-shinned Hawks, 
Great Homed Owls, Prairie Dogs, Porcupines, and "Varmints" do 
more harm than good. 

6. Leave a Clean Camp and a Clean Record. You may want to como 
back. 



216 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 




animals have white, sound, short teeth and smooth, symmetrical 
claws. 

Old birds should also be parboiled. They may be known by 
their scaly legs and claws, their long spurs, if these are present, 
and the generally rough and more or less bedraggled appearance 
of their plumage. Young birds have smooth legs and feet, short 
spurs, and plumage of a healthy appearance. 

Domestic Meats. — These include the meat of cattle, hogs, 
sheep and goats, and domestic fowls. The first is known as 
'* beef " if from animals over about six months old, and as " veal " 
if from calves. The second comes under the head of " pork," 
the dried sides being known in many parts of the West as " salt 
horse " and in the South as " sow belly." Meat from the sheep 
is known as " mutton," and the 
same term is usually applied to goat 
meat as well. 

Any frozen meat should be 
thawed in cold salt water before 
being cooked. Certain portions of 
most meats, such as ribs and 
steak, are best when fried. Other 
parts, usually those including joints 
or large bones, are best boilqd. For 
the different cuts of beef see 
Fig. 193. 

Fresh beef and mutton are usually 
secured from private sources in 
the field, but pork comes in the 
shape of hams and shoulders or 
salt sides. Before being cooked, 
hams, shoulders, and salt sides 
should be freshened in cold or warm 
water. This removes a greater 
part of the salt used in the pre- 
servative treatment appHed to them 
at the time they are packed. 
Fried. — This method of preparing meat requires so much 
grease that the average person soon tires of such food, and when- 
ever possible to do so the field man should vary the method of 
preparation by boiling, stewing, or roasting. In frying meats 
the pan should have a layer of grease over the entire bottom 



Fig. 193. — Cuts of beef. 

1. Neck, or Sticking-Piece. 

2. Chuck Ribs. 

3. Middle Ribs. 

4. Fore Ribs. 

5. Sirloin. 

6. Aitchbone. 

7. Rump. 

8. Buttock. 

9. Hock. 

10. Round. 

11. Veiny Piece. 

12. Thick Flank. 

13. Thin Flank. 

14. Brisket. 

15. Shoulder. 
IG. Shin. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 217 

of at least Vie-inch in thickness. During the process of frying 
the meat should also be covered with a pan Ud in order to keep 
in all the heat possible. Proper frying consists chiefly of heat- 
ing the meat clear through at the earhest possible moment. 
It should also be turned frequently and not allowed to burn 
or harden on one side. The grease should be hot when the 
meat is placed in it. 

Boiled. — This is done by dropping large pieces of meat into 
boiUng water and boihng them till the layers of meat may be 
separated from each other without difficulty. It is a very satis- 
factory way of preparing joints and pieces of meat surrounding 
large bones, but is somewhat more troublesome than frying. 
The water in which such meats are boiled may be seasoned 
with salt, pepper, or other articles and is then known as soup. 
Vegetables may be boiled with the meat and the mixture is 
then knoTMi usually as a " stew " or " mulhgan." 

Broiled.— This method of preparation is usually apphed to 
steaks and large pieces of meat having no bone in them. In 
such cases the meat is placed on a hot stove or over hve coals. 
The process differs from frying in that no grease is used, and 
from roasting by reason of the fact that the meat is not allowed 
to come in contact with the flames. It soon causes the outer 
portions of the meat to assume a more compact nature, and thus 
serves to retain the meat juices. 

Roasted. — This method is used when cooking utensils are not 
available, and consists merely in placing the meat near enough 
to the fire to render the former more tender and palatable by 
heating it through suddenly. The meat may be held in posi- 
tion by a forked stick or other similar contrivance or it may be 
suspended from a pot-rack. (See Fig. 194.) 

Fish. — ^Fish taken from clear, fresh water may be cooked ais 
soon as cleaned and di-essed, but those which are taken from 
muddy or stagnant streams should be soaked in a strong solution 
of salt and water for from one to two hours. This will remove 
the unpleasant muddy taste when such fish are cooked. Frozen 
fish should be thawed in cold water to which a httle salt has 
been added. Small fish, such as trout, perch, and small bass, 
are better when cooked whole, preferably by frying. The larger 
varieties should first be cut into pieces and then cooked. To 
prepare fish for cooking, remove the scales or skin, take out the 
entrails, wash clean both inside and out, and dry clean with a 



218 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

soft cloth which absorbs water well. Catfish and others having 
no scales must be skinned. This is done by dipping them into 
boiUng water and holding them there about ten seconds. This 
has a tendency to cook the skin and separate it from the flesh. 
If kept in boiUng water much longer than that portions of the 
flesh will be removed with the skin. Eels should be skinned in 




Wire hooks. 




Wooden hooks. 
Fig. 194.— Pot-racks. 




I^^ijp^ 



Fig. 195. — Camp table and seats. 



a similar manner. After the dipping process has been completed 
the skin is cut around the neck immediately to the rear of the 
head and is then stripped backward over the body. 

Fried. — Roll the fish in flour, meal, or bread or cracker crumbs 
and fry in plenty of grease over a hot fire. When one side has 
been browned to the desired degree turn the fish over and treat 
the other side likewise. Seasoning should be added to suit the 
individual taste. 

Boiled. — Cut the fish into pieces of the required size and drop 
them into boiling water. They may be seasoned while being 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 219 

boiled or the seasoning may be applied at the time they are 
served. 

Eggs. — Fned.— Break the eggs into a separate dish, then sUde 
them into a hot, well-greased pan in such a way that the yolks 
are not broken. Add salt and pepper to suit. Occasional bad 
eggs will not be broken in with good eggs if all are broken into 
some receptacle other than the pan in which they are to be 
fried. 

Boiled. — If soft-boiled eggs are desired they should be boiled 
three minutes, in very high altitudes five minutes. Hard-boiled 
eggs require six minutes of boiling, in high altitudes ten. They 
may be considered as hard boiled when the shells dry immedi- 
ately after they are removed from the water. One very com- 
mon method of hard boiling is to place the eggs in cold water 
and heat slowly to a temperature just below boiling. Half an 
hour of such preparation is sufficient. 

Scrambled. — These ai'e prepared the same as for frying except 
that the whites and yolks are all beaten together. 

Poached. — Slide the broken eggs into boihng water, taking 
care not to break the yolks. Boil as long as desired and season 
when served. 

Roasted. — Cover unbroken eggs with Uve coals. Care must 
be taken to see that the eggs are not burned. 

Baked. — Slide broken eggs into a hot and well-greased stew- 
pan and bake in a hot oven. If no stove is available use the 
Dutch oven. 

Omelet. — Prepare the same as scrambled eggs, and add sweet 
milk and bread or cracker crumbs tiU the mixture is as thick 
as desired. Keep the mixtm'e weU stirred to prevent burning 
and season as desired. 



VEGETABLES 

Potatoes. — Boiled. — Pare them and cut the large ones in half, 
wash them thoroughly, then boil them till they offer little or 
no resistance to a fork thrust into them. When they reach this 
stage remove them from the fire, drain off the water, then set 
back over the fire to dry. Season when served. 

Mashed. — Prepare the same as for boihng, then mash thoroughly 
and season when served. 

Fried. — Peel and slice thin and fry in grease in a hot pan; 



220 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

salt and pepper may be added as they fry. If boiled first and 
sliced when cold they will fry much more quickly. 

Creamed. — Cut peeled potatoes in small pieces and boil in 
salt water, drain, add sweet milk, butter, salt and other desired 
seasoning, then boil again. Remove them from the fire shortly 
after the milk boils. 

Baked. — ^Wash clean and bake in a hot oven. The skins need 
not be removed, but, if tough, should be pricked or punctured at 
a number of places in order to allow the escape of steam and 
gases. 

Roasted. — Cover unpeeled potatoes with Uve coals. Care 
must be taken to see that they do not burn to a crisp. 

Beans. — Boiled. — These increase in quantity about one-half 
when boiled. Remove all dirt, pebbles, and shriveled or de- 
cayed beans and wash the sound ones twice in cold water. 
Add a scant teaspoonful of soda to a half gallon of beans cov- 
ered with water, boil thirty minutes, then change the water and 
wash the beans again. After this they should be boiled till all 
are soft. As the water boils away it should be renewed with 
boiling water. Cold water will retard the process of boihng. 
If soda is not available change the water after the beans have 
boiled about twenty minutes, using fresh cold water. 

Onions. — Boiled. — Peel and quarter the onions and drop them 
into boiling water. Boil the same as potatoes, adding salt, 
pepper, or other seasoning to suit. 

Fried. — Peel and sHce the onions very thin, sprinkle with salt, 
pepper, or other seasoning, then fry in hot grease. These may 
be fried with potatoes and found to be very palatable. 

Fresh. — Cut away the roots and the dead tops, wash care- 
fully and place in cold water to keep them fresh. If the long 
green tops are not desired they may be cut away at the body 
of the vegetable. 

Green Vegetables. — Boiled. — ^Wash the vegetables thoroughly 
and drop them into boiling water that has been salted in the 
proportion of one teaspoonful of salt to a quart of water. If such 
water is allowed to boil too long before the vegetables are placed 
in it they will have a less agreeable taste. This is due to the 
deposits that the boihng water makes on the sides and bottom 
of the vessel. Young or fresh vegetables boil more quickly than 
old or stale ones, but under ordinary circumstances the following 
table may be followed with generally satisfactory results: 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 



221 



Beans boiled 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Green corn 

Green peas 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Potatoes baked 

Sweet potatoes . . lioiled 
Sweet potatoes . . baked 

Rutabagas boiled 

Squash " 

String beans. ... " 
Turnips " 



to 2 hours 



(depending upon its age) 



Rice. — Boiled. — Rice swells to about three times its normal 
size and doubles in weight when boiled. It should be cleaned 
the same as beans and then washed thoroughly. Two quarts 
of water will be sufficient for boiling half a pound of rice. Add a 
tablespoonful of salt and boil twenty minutes, then drain off 
the water and place the vessel in another filled with boiling 
water. Cover the rice and steam it for fifteen minutes, then 
remove the cover and steam it five minutes longer. If a second 
vessel is not available boil the rice twenty minutes, then drain off 
the water, remove the rice from the kettle, sprinkle salt over 
the sides and bottom of the latter, rub them well with a dry 
cloth, then replace the rice and set it near the fire to dry and 
swell. Stirring it breaks the grains. To test it, squeeze a grain 
between the fingers. If done it will mash easily. 

Sandwiches. — Egg. — Use coarse-grated, hard-boiled eggs and 
spread them on buttered bread. Add salt, pepper, mustard, 
sauce, or other seasoning to suit, then cover with a second shce 
of bread. 

Ham or Tongue. — Stir the yolk of an egg into finely chopped 
ham or tongue, then prepare the same as an egg sandwich. 

Fish. — Remove all skin or bones and prepare the same as 
ham or tongue. 

FRUITS 

Apples. — Baked. — Pare the fruit and remove the cores, fill 
with butter and sugar, bake in a stew-pan partly filled with 
water, and after a sjTup has formed use it to baste the fruit 
with. 



222 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Stewed. — If dried fruit is to be used soak it overnight in cold 
water, then boil till done and season to suit. 

Fresh fruit should be pared, cored, and quartered, then boiled 
in a syrup made of water and sugar, one quart of the former 
to a pound of the latter. Lemon juice or peel, preferably the 
latter, when added to the fruit improves the taste. 

Peaches. — Stewed. — If dried fruit is to be used it should be 
soaked in cold water overnight and then boiled till it is quite 
tender and done. Seasoning should be added to suit. 

Fresh fruit should be pitted, pared, and quartered and then 
boiled the same as appUes. If the skins are to be left on, the 
fruit should be thoroughly washed and aU the fuzz removed. 

Prunes. — Stewed. — Soak the fruit overnight in cold water, 
then boil done and season to suit. 

Jams. — Use a pound of sugar for every pound of fruit and 
boil to the desired consistency. Season to suit. Apples and 
pears should be pared, cored, and quartered; small fruit should 
be washed clean, then mashed or boiled to a pulp and prepared 
in the same manner. 

Jellies. — These are prepared from the juice instead of from 
the pulp of fruits. Use a pint of sugar to each pint of strained 
juice and boil till the required consistency is reached. Huckle- 
berries require less sweetening than any other fruit, while goose- 
berries require the most. 

Pickles. — These are fruits, meats, or vegetables preserved in 
vinegar. They should never be prepared in tin or iron vessels, 
since the boihng vinegar may be so affected as to render it 
poisonous. Only stone jars, glass or porcelain vessels, or enamel- 
ware should be used. The last-named should be absolutely free 
from cracks or bruises where the iron or tin may be exposed 
to the vinegar. A wooden ladle should be used for stirring and 
all tin or iron spoons avoided. 

Beets. — These should be boiled two hours, then allowed to cool. 
Pare and shce thin and cover with vinegar into which the de- 
sired seasoning has been boiled. 

Onions. — Remove thek skins and drop the onions into salt 
brine made strong enough to float an egg. Let them stand 
twenty-four hours, then remove them from the brine and cover 
with seasoned boihng vinegar. If the onions are pared under 
water, juice from them will not reach the cook's eyes. 

Mixed. — ^Add a tablespoonful of salt to a quart each of finely 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 223 

chopped raw cabbage and boiled beets. Add also a teaspoonful 
of pepper, a teacupful of finely grated horseradish, and two 
teacupfuls of sugar. Cover the mixture with vinegar. 

Sweet. — For apples, pears, peaches, and melon rinds use as 
many pounds of sugar as of fruit. Boil the seasoning into the 
vinegar and use half a pint of this to three pounds of fruit. 
Cover the fruit with boiHng vinegar prepared in this manner. 

Ginger Snaps. — Mix together one teacupful of molasses, one 
teaspoonful of soda, half a teacupful of lard, and as much ginger 
as desired. Add flour and miix very stiff. Bake in a hot oven. 

Fruit Pudding. — Add a teacupful each of sweet milk, minced 
suet, and molasses to a teacupful of raisins or other fruit. Mix 
in enough broken bread to make a stiff dough, and then steam 
the mixture till it is done. 

Pie Crust. — Add a teaspoonful of salt and twice as much 
baking powder to a quart of flour. When these have been 
quite thoroughly mixed together add enough sweet milk to make 
stiff dough. Fruit juice will not soak through the crust if the 
latter is well spread over with a beaten egg. 

Fies. — Fruit. — Prepare the crusts as above, place one in the 
pie pan after the lat,ter has been greased to prevent sticking, 
put in the stewed fruit, cover with the other crust, close the 
edges of the two crusts well together, and then bake in a hot oven. 

Rice. — Use a tablespoonful of rice for each pie required and 
boil it till quite done. After it has cooled add an egg and fruit 
and season to suit. 

DRINKS 

Coffee. — Pour a quart of boihng water over a hberal handful 
of ground coffee and let it stand ten minutes before serving. 
To settle the grounds, pour in about half a teacupful of cold 
water or drop a handful of snow into the coffee-pot. If such a pot 
is not available put the ground coffee in the Dutch oven and 
stir it as it heats. After it has been well heated pour boiling 
water on it and let it stand five minutes. Strain it through a 
cloth and then replace the liquid in the oven to keep it hot. 

Tea. — Tea should never be boiled. Use a very scant tea- 
spoonful of tea for each cupful required and pour on boihng 
water. Let it stand ten minutes before using. 

Cocoa. — As a general rule it is always more satisfactory- to 



224 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

everybody concerned if each man mixes his own cocoa. This 
may be done by mixing a teaspoonful of sugar very thoroughly 
into the same amount of cocoa, then adding as much sweet milk 
as may be desired for the cup, and mixing it all together until 
no lumps remain. After this the hot water may be poured into 
the cup. 

Chocolate. — Scrape the chocolate from the cake in a iiiic 
powder and then prepare the same as cocoa. 

Lemonade. — One lemon is sufficient for two glasses of this 
drink, and should be of the thin-skinned variety. The tissues 
may be broken up and the juice released if the lemon is rolled 
until it becomes quite soft. When this has been done it may 
be cut in half and the juice squeezed out, or it may be cut in 
thin sUces and pressed. Sugar and cold water are added to the juice 
in amounts sufficient to make the lemonade as strong as desired. 

Beer. — To five gallons of water add half a pint of hops and 
half a peck (four quarts) of good wheat bran. Boil this mix- 
ture till the bran and hops sink. Strain the liquid through a 
cloth and add two quarts of molasses as soon as it becom,es 
lukewarm. After the molasses has thoroughly dissolved pour 
the mixture into a keg and add a tablespoonful of yeast. After 
fermentation ceases cork the keg for a week before using the beer. 

CARE OF COOKING UTENSILS 

Vessels in which eggs have been prepared should either be 
filled with cold water and allowed to stand for a short time or 
be cleaned immediately after the eggs have been removed. 
Otherwise the eggs wiU stick and can be removed only with 
difficulty. 

Milk vessels should be scalded when empty, thoroughly dried, 
and then set away in such a place and in such a manner that 
dust can not enter them. Unless carefuUy scalded and kept 
perfectly clean they soon become odorous and unsanitary. 

Vessels in which dough has been mixed should be fiUed with 
cold water and allowed to stand for ten or fifteen minutes. This 
loosens the dough and permits its removal with greater ease. 
Hot water will only serve to make it stick worse. 

Rust, grease, and burned food may be removed from cooking 
utensils by using common earth or fine sand for a scouring agent. 
If pans or kettles are allowed to rust, foodstuffs will stick in 
them and can be removed only by scouring. 



GENERAL FIELD WORK 225 

Care must be taken not to crack or otherwise injure the 
enamel on enamelware dishes. Such openings in the enamel 
permit exposure of the inner metal, and this soon rusts. 

Knives, forks, and spoons may be kept clean and bright by- 
thrusting them into the ground a number of times before they 
are washed, nearly all soils carrying sufficient grit to provide 
a suitable scouring agent. After these articles have been washed 
they should be carefully dried and placed where snow or rain 
can not reach them. 

BUTCHERING 

It happens not infrequently that field men must act as butchers 
if they are to secure fresh meat, and it is therefore probable that 
a general knowledge of the operations involved wiU not come 
amiss. 

Cattle and hogs are usually killed by being shot or by being 
knocked in the head. Immediately after this has been done 
they are bled by a thrust of a long-bladed knife which enters the 
heart. Such a knife should have a very long, thin point and 
should be started through the skin at a point just above the 
animal's breast-bone. - In order to secure free bleeding at once, 
the knife-blade should be aimed directly at the root of the 
animal's tail. This usually leads it directly into the heart. 
Unless the blood gushes forth in a stream the heart has not 
been reached, and a second thrust, possibly a third one, will 
be necessary. 

Cattle are skinned. In performing this operation the skin 
should first be cut entirely around the legs at or near the hoofs. 
It is then spht from this incision along the inner side of each 
leg to the middle of the lower side of the body. Afterward the 
skin along the entire under side of the body is spHt open even 
to the tip of the tail. Another incision is made around the 
neck immediately to the rear of the head, and the skin is then 
ready to be removed. Usually it is removed from the legs and 
neck first. It may then be stripped off either to the rear or to 
the front. After this has been done the body is opened along 
the under side and the internal organs are removed. A block 
and tackle should be provided and the body hung up head 
downward. In this position the interior may be dashed with 
clean cold water and thus washed out. In hanging the body 
a 30-inch gambrel should be used. Its ends are inserted in slits 



226 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

cut through between the ham-strings and the bones of the hind 
legs, and it is then hung from the center to a pole or the branch 
of a tree. It should be of some tough wood and not less than 
3 inches in diameter. 

Hogs are scalded.^ This may be done either by dipping the 
body into boiling water^ or by dashing boihng water over it. 
The object of such scalding is to loosen the bristles so they 
may be scraped from the skin. After the bristles have been 
removed the body is hung the same as a beef, and is otherwise 
treated in a similar manner except that as a general rule the 
internal organs are not removed until the body has been hung. 
An 18-inch gambrel 2 inches in diameter is heavy enough to 
s^ipport a 400-pound hog. 

Sheep and goats are killed by having the throat cut across 
back of the jaws and through to the bone in the neck. The 
animal is placed on its back, the chin is thrust forward with one 
hand and the butcher then wields the knife in the other. The 
skin may be removed and the body further dressed the same as 
that of a cow. Use the same size gambrel as for hogs. 

Sheep- and goat-fat may be rendered into tallow, but should 
not be used for cooking purposes, as it has a very strong and 
disagreeable odor. 

1 In some States it is a violation of law to skin a hog, presumably 
because the identification marks in the ears would thus be removed. 

2 The most convenient method of heating water in the field is by- 
placing large, hot stones in a barrel of water. The barrel should be 
firmly fixed at an incline to faciUtate dipping 



LIVE STOCK 

CARE OF HORSES 

Horses are not naturally vicious or otherwise incorrigibly in- 
clined, but such characteristics may develop as the result of im- 
proper training or treatment, and continually nagging at or un- 
necessarily annoying an animal is a practice that can not be 
too strongly condemned. There is a wide-spread idea prevalent 
that horses can neither think nor reason, but men who have 
spent years working with or about them will invariably dispute 
this theory.. 

Water. — A horse can exist on wonderfully short rations, but it 
is imperative that he have a certain amount of w^ater. He should 
not be allowed free access to it, however, while he is extremely 
warm or fatigued, nor should he be given water immediate!}- 
after being fed, as in this case the water will carry the grain 
or forage directly into the intestines before stomachical digestion 
has been completed. The invariable result of this is colic in 
more or less severity. The best time to water a tired or warm 
saddle or work animal is after it has been allowed to rest about 
twenty minutes and before it is fed. Stagnant or polluted water 
should never be given. 

Feed. — Grain,- — ^Various customs of feeding prevail in different 
locaUties, and that to which an animal has been accustomed 
should be followed whenever this is possible. Work animals in 
the South are usually fed grain and roughage three times a day, 
but in most parts of the West and Southwest grain only is fed 
and but twice a day, the animals being allowed to graze at 
night or at intervals during the day, and thus secure the necessary 
roughage for themselves. 

Green Corn. — This must be fed in very small quantities until 
an animal's digestive organs adjust themselves to the work of 
assimilating it. Not more than four ears should be given at a 
feed and only twice daily for the first two weeks. The amount 
may then be increased two or three ears. An animal fed green 
corn should have free access to salt at all times. 

Ear Corn. — This constitutes the principal grain feed of the 
227 



228 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

South, many portions of the North, and practically all parts of 
the middle West. It is very nutritious, but creates too much 
heat for a steady diet or for heavy summer work. Moreover, 
animals unaccustomed to eating it may have considerable diffi- 
culty at first in shelHng it from the cob, and if they suffer from 
bad teeth they will have still more difficulty in masticating it. 
It is bulky and is not satisfactory grain to pack or transport by 
wagon from camp to camp. 

A very common rule for measuring ear corn is by the number 
of average ears locally considered as constituting a bushel. 
Eighty selected ears make a bushel in the lower Missouri valley, 
one hundred and twenty average ears are accepted as a bushel 
throughout the middle West, but in most parts of the South and 
Southeast, where climatic conditions are not so favorable to the 
production of a good grade of corn, one hundred and twenty- 
five and sometimes one hundred and thirty average ears are 
considered a bushel. The weight of a bushel of ear corn is 
seventy pounds, fovu'teen of which are assumed to be the weight 
of the cobs. 

For medium heavy work, whether pack, .saddle, or wagon, 
eight ears twice a day will be sufficient for a thousand-pound 
horse, but an animal raised in the South should have an extra 
similar feed at noon. All worm dust and worm-eaten kernels 
should be removed. In addition to this amount of grain such 
animals should be given as much roughage as they will clean 
up at a feed. Mules should be fed a third less grain and their 
roughage allowance should be increased in proportion. Burros, 
of the type commonly used in the West for pack animals, can 
seldom be induced to eat ear corn, and the same is also true of 
Western range horses. 

Shelled Corn. — This can not be recommended as a satisfactory 
grain feed. Animals that are tired, warm, or extremely hungry 
usually eat it too hurriedly and do not crush it fine enough. 
The result is that a large portion of it enters the stomach whole, 
where it is not only practically impervious to the digestive 
juices, but is also subject to such swelling that a severe attack 
of cohc may ensue. Moreover, when it is improperly masti- 
cated, it passes through the ahmentary canal without supplying 
the required amount of nourishment, and is therefore a total loss. 
It is an especially dangerous grain to feed an animal with poor 
teeth or one that bolts its food as quickly as possible. 



LIVE STOCK 229 

However, if no other grain is available shelled corn should 
be fed very sparingly with a proportionately larger amount of 
roughage. Two quarts twice a day with roughage will be suf- 
ficient. About four average ears will produce a quart when 
shelled (except where eighty ears are considered a bushel) and 
will weigh approximately one and three-fourths pounds. Water 
should never be supplied immediately after an animal has had 
a feed of shelled corn, but should always be given at least half 
an hour before feeding. 

Oats. — Oats can hardly be surpassed for a steady diet that will 
impart strength and general health to an animal, and their use 
is strongly recommended when they can be secured. In most 
States thirty-two pounds constitute a bushel, thus allowing one 
pound to the quart. The regular feed should be about four 
quarts twice or three times a day, depending upon the work 
being done and the manner of feeding to which the animal is 
accustomed. 

Barley. — This constitutes the chief grain feed in many of the 
Western States, where it is crushed or rolled and put up in sacks, 
usually of seventy pounds, although in some locahties a sack 
may hold as much as one hundred and forty pounds. A seventy- 
pound sack provides from fourteen to sixteen feeds. 

Wheat. — In view of the fact that wheat swells when moist, it 
is not a very satisfactory horse feed, although, after an animal 
has become well accustomed to eating it, no ill effects follow. 
However, it is always advisable to have it thoroughly soaked 
before it is given an animal. The amount given at one feed 
should not exceed one-haK gallon, which weighs approximately 
four pounds. It is a common grain-feed in the Northwest. 

Bran. — This acts chiefly as a laxative, possesses a very low 
nutritive value, and should be fed once a week merely as an 
aid in keeping an animal's digestive apparatus in good condition. 
It should be moistened and mixed until it wiU not be blown about 
by the animal's breath. If a scant handful of salt is added to 
the feed it will prove more appetizing and wiU be eaten with 
greater relish. One gallon is sufficient for a feed. 

Roughage. — This may consist of green range grass, tame 
grasses, or hays and fodders. The first is the most common 
form of roughage in the West, while the other forms are in 
common use throughout the middle West and all sections of 
the South. 



230 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Range Grasses. — There are so many varieties of these, such as 
the different gramas, blue grasses, rye grasses, broom grasses, 
and others, that the subject can not be discussed in detail here. 
A general treatise on range plants can be secured, and the field 
man should study it carefully at leisure times. ^ 

Tame Grasses. — Few of these appear on open range lands, but 
a large variety will be found in the pastures throughout the 
East, South, Southeast, and middle West. Chief among them 
may be mentioned blue grass, Johnson grass, blue stem, crab 
grass, foxtail, timothy, aKalfa, and clover. An animal should 
not be allowed free access to any green feed until it has become 
more or less accustomed to eating it. Wet or dewy clover is 
especially liable to cause colic. 

Hay, — AKalfa is the principal hay used in the West and 
Southwest. The first cutting may affect an animal's kidneys, 
and since an inexperienced person can hardly be expected to 
distinguish between this and subsequent cuttings he should 
take care not to feed too much alfaKa hay until he is sure it 
is having no iU effects. Customarily from twenty-eight to 
thirty-four bales are considered a ton. 

Timothy hay is very common to the South, and can hardly 
be excelled for a steady roughage diet. From twenty-eight to 
thirty-three bales usually constitute a ton, although bales may 
weigh as much as one hundred and twenty or twenty-five pounds 
in some locahties. In such a cas6 sixteen bales are considered 
a ton. 

Clover hay, also common to the South and weighing about the 
same as timothy, is a very satisfactory roughage if properly cured, 
but it molds so easily if stored away damp that a large per cent 
of it is usually unfit for horse feed, although it is apparently 
relished by cattle. 

Any good grade of hay carries a large amount of leaves and 
blossoms or " flowers," is free from coarse stems, weeds, trash, 
and other such materials, and is of a bright green color. 

Fodders. — These may be whole stalks, tops, or blades of corn, 
cane, or Kaffir corn. Whole stalks do not make satisfactory 
roughage by reason of the large amount of Vv^aste in the butts. 



1 See Notes on National Forest Range Plants, Part 1, Grasses, by the 
Office of Grazing Studies, Forest Service. 



LIVE STOCK 



231 



Top fodders and blades are usually eaten up clean and little or 
no waste remains. 

Salt. — Herbivorous animals obtain so little salt in their nat- 
ural foods and require so much salt in the proper digestion of 
such foods that it is incumbent upon the field man, or any other 
stock-owner, to see that it is supphed in sufficient amounts and 
in such a manner that animals may have free access to it at 
all times. This can best be done by placing the salt in a box 
where the animals may Uck it as they desire. The rock salt, 
so much in favor among cattle-owners, is not recommended for 
horses, the construction of their tongues being such that they 
can not secure salt from a hard mass as readily as cattle may. 
Regular table salt is somewhat more expensive than rock salt, 
but on account of its greater strength and purity and the ease 
with which a horse may secure it, it is reconomended in preference 
to the rock salt. An average handful once a week will prove 
sufficient. 

SHOEING 

Kit. — If a man must shoe his ovvai animals he should provide 
himself with the kit of tools shown in Fig. 196. This includes 




Hoof-parers. 



Nippers. 





Shoeing hammer. 



Paring knife. 






Rasp. 




Toe knife. 



Fig. 196. — Horseshoer's kit. 



Buflfer. 



232 HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

a pair of hoof-parers, a pair of cutting nippers, a hammer, a 
paring knife, rasp, toe knife, and buffer, and costs from $3.50 
to $5.00. The 14-inch parers, rasp, and nippers are recommended. 
Ordinarily he will be able to secure parers, rasp, nippers, and 
hammer by requisition. 

Before he attempts to shoe an animal he should learn some- 
thing of the structure and functions of the hoof, and thereby 
avoid mistakes so commonly made by amateur shoers. 

Hoof. — The hoof is provided as a means of protection to the 
delicate nerves, membranes, and fibers that compose the foot. 
It is a tough, horny, fibrous substance, the fibers extending ver- 
tically and parallel with each other, and secretes an oil the 
object of which is to exclude external moisture and to retain 
internal moisture. The growth is from the upper edge or coro- 
net downward and occurs at the rate of from 3 to 4 inches a 

year. In thickness it varies 
Cannon Bone — Mill ^ " from 1^- to ^^-luch at the lower 

Upper Pa3lem^__^( ^*'^J ^dgC tO abOUt ^-inch at the ex- 

Lower Pastern— _^^^^^^l,iio^'' treme upper edge at the coronet. 

Coffin Bone-^^fcrlperforans Tendon FrOm the lattCr Cdge dOWU- 

^^^^^^sZl'-l'."^ ^"^ ward the increase in thickness is 

CROSS SECTION 0F-F00t'^-^\ ,f^o^al *■« So;„ • 1 . ••11. • 1 

SIDE VIEW ^^o^^^^^'ok rapid to a pomt about one mch 

^"^ below the coronet from where 

Fig. 197. it is practically uniform to the 

lower edge. 

It is generally conceded by horsemen and shoers that white 
or striped hoofs are not as strong and tough as black hoofs. 

Parts of the Hoof. — These are the sole, frog, heel, toe, walls, 
bars, and coronet. 

Each has its particular function to perform, and lameness or 
other trouble will occur if normal action is interrupted by care- 
less attention or improper shoeing. It is therefore of the utmost 
importance that each part be given due consideration when old 
shoes are to be removed or new ones are to be nailed on. 

Sole. — This is the portion of the hoof presented to the ground 
and is thickest at the edges where it meets the hoof walls and 
thinnest at the center along the edges of the frog. It grows 
from the sensitive sole above, the dead or worn-out tissues 
peeling from the under surface in flakes. Lameness will result 
if the sole is pared away too thin. 

Frog. — This extends in a V-shape from the rear of the hoof 



LIVE STOCK 233 

to or near the center of the sole, the partly cleft wide end being 
at the rear. A cleft also extends along either side and serves 
to increase the flexibility of the sole's connection with the frog. 
The growth is from the sensitive frog above. Its functions are 
similar to those of a cushion which prevents jars, and it also 
acts as a wedge which keeps the heel well spread, thereby main- 
taining a wider sole base. In unshod horses it prevents slipping 
or sHding forward or sidewise. It should be left free to come 
in contact with the ground and should not be pared deeply, 
since the dead tissues will wear away fast enough against the 
ground. 

Heel. — This is located at the rear of the hoof and is appar- 
ently an upward extension and termination of the frog. It acts 
as a protection to the attachment of various tendons and hga- 
ments, serves as a brace to prevent the hoof from turning side- 
w^ise, and provides a cushion wliich, in conjunction with the frog, 
absorbs most of the shock in fast or rough travel. It needs no 
attention in shoeing unless old injuries have caused the forma- 
tion of large or hard scales or scabs. In that case it may be- 
come necessary to remove these in order that they may not 
hang in brush or rocks and tear out or otherwise injure the hoof. 

Toe. — This is the lower forward edge of the hoof. It assists 
the animal in securing a firm footing and should be especially 
strong and healthy. The forward or outer upright portion 
should not be pared away deeply to make it fit the shoe. Such 
trimming not only causes improper traveling by shortening the 
toe and causing an animal to " break over " too quickly, but 
also weakens the hoof seriously. Furthermore, it removes a 
portion of the hoof waU which secretes the hoof oil and thus 
allows a certain amount of external moisture to enter and more 
or less of the internal moisture to escape. It is permissible, how- 
ever, and even advisable, to rasp away the short, sharp, ragged 
edge that may project shghtly over the shoe. 

Walls. — These are the upright portions of the hoof. They 
serve as a protection to a number of joints and tendon and 
ligament attachments which occur at a point where compact- 
ness of arrangement is essential. Like the edge of the toe they 
should not be rasped away very deeply, if at all. 

Bars. — These appear in the shape of ridges, one along either 
side of the frog, beginning at the heel wall and ex-tending to 
the forward end of the frog. They act as reenforcements to the 



234 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

parts of the sole immediately adjacent to the frog and also 
serve as a means of protection to the sides of the frog. They 
should not be pared away. 

Coronet. — This is found at the junction of the hair and the 
hoof. Its function is to produce hoof material, and the health 
and strength of the hoof depend upon its healthy condition. 
Bruises or slight punctures made in it remain in the hoof wall 
until the downward growth removes them at the lower edge of 
the hoof.^ The most common injury to the coronet, aside from 
wire cuts and injuries from nails and similar articles, occurs as 
the result of a bruise, appears in the form of an abscess, and 
is known as " quittor." (See page 256.) 

Holding the Feet. — In holding a forefoot the shoer should 
place the cannon-bone or pastern joint between his knees as he 
stands with his back toward the animal's head; a hind foot 
is held most conveniently if he places the cannon bone over his 
thigh and .allows the pastern joint to rest against his knees. 
A vicious animal should be thrown or have its forefeet tied 
up close to the elbows and the hind feet tied to the tail, or fas- 
tened as shown in^ Fig. 198. BUndfolding is also an effective 
means of control; it may be done by fastening a coat or a feed- 
sack over the animal's eyes, the coat-arms being tied together 
beneath its jaws, or the sack-ends thrust under the cheeks of a 
halter, hackamore, or bridle. The shoer should not touch a 
blindfolded animal until he has spoken to it and made it aware 
of his presence. Brutal treatment is never effective and only 
serves to make a fractious animal less tractable during future 
operations of shoeing. 

Removal of Shoes. — Shoes that have been worn so long that 

1 strictly speaking, these so-called scars are less in the nature of 
scars themselves than continuations of scars appearing in the coronet. 
They bear the same relation to the hoof walls that a crack, ridge, or 
other unnatural growth resulting from an injury to the matrix bears 
to the human toe- or finger-nail. Such a growth on the hoof merely 
indicates that the coronet has at some previous^ time been more or 
less severely injured and that its functions have been impaired to a 
degree which rendered it Incapable of producing normal and uniform 
hoof material at the point of injury. Therefore, originating in an 
irregiQar and gnarled condition, that portion of the wall growing from 
the scarred point of the coronet remains so and thus appears in a form 
which may lead an inexperienced person to believe that the injury 
itself extended from the coronet completely through and to the lower 
edge of the hoof wall. 



LIVE STOCK 



235 



the hoofs have grown out long and narrow should be removed, 
and if possible the animal should be allowed to go without 
shoes for a week or two; this permits the hoofs to wear down 
evenly and naturally and also allows them to spread and regain 
whatever shape may have been lost as the result of the shoes' 
protection. Constant wearing of shoes soon tends to narrow the 




Fig. 198. — Shoeing rig. 



hoof and this results in an unnatural strain on the tendons as 
the animal tries to keep the hoof from tipping. 

Clinches should be cut away first, and when this has been 
done the nippers are forced between the shoe and one side of 
the heel and the handles are then forced downward. As soon 
as the shoe has been loosened it may be tapped back into place, 
leaving the nail head protruding far enough to be seized and 
drawn with the nippers. 

The other side of the heel is then treated in a similar manner, 
and when the rear nails have been dra"^Ti the shoe may be tipped 
do'^Tiward toward the toe and the remaining nails pulled. If one 
whole side of the shoe is removed first and the shoe is then 
tipped sidewise over the edge of the hoof it may cause the wall 
to be broken or torn as the nails are forced out. 

Leveling the Hoof. — Long edges are cut away with the parers. 
If the latter are of the variety having only one cutting edge this 
"edge is placed toward the center of the foot, the blunt jaw 
being brought to bear against the outer side of the wall. When 
the rougher edges have been thus cut away smaller irregularities 



236 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

may be removed with the paring knife. Finally the rasp is 
used, and last, by means of the paring knife, the central por- 
tions of the sole are trimmed down till the shoe will rest 
directly against the lower edges of the walls. If it is allowed 
to bear against the sole too far in from the walls corns may 
result. 

Fitting the Shoe. — Malleable shoes must be used when no 
forge and anvil are available. These may be fitted cold and 
are recommended for use by field men who are not familiar with 
the use of a forge. The practice of applying a hot shoe to the 
hoof for the purpose of burning the latter down till it fits the 
shoe is one to be avoided; the shoe should be shaped to fit the 
hoof. Prehminary fitting may result in the sUght scorching of 
the hoof, but one or two Ught applications of the shoe should 
be sufficient to show what changes must be made in its 
shape. 





Shoe properly fitted. Toe cut away to fit the shoe. 
Fig. 199. 



It should be wide enough at the heel to prevent it from rest- 
ing against the frog, and the outer edges should be flush with 
the edges of the hoof. For proper and improper fitting see 
Fig. 199. 

Attaching the Shoe. — Under ordinary circumstances it is most 
convenient to drive one of the rear nails first. Careful inspec- 
tion of a horse nail will show the point beveled to one side. 
In driving the nail this bevel is placed toward the center of the 
foot and thus leads the nail out of rather than into the hoof 
wall. After the nail has been driven up close, the protruding 
point is twisted off with the claws of the hammer, and the oppo- 



LIVE STOCK 



23- 



site nail at the. rear is driven in a similar manner. Remaining 
nails are then driven as convenience dictates. 

In very flaring hoofs nails should be set slightly outside of 
a perpendicular to the face of the shoe, but in very straight 
hoofs it may be necessary to set them either perpendicularly 
to the shoe or even inside of a perpendicular. 

Finishing, — When all the nails have been driven they are " set " 
securely by holding the buffer against the clinches and tapping 
the heads sharply with the hammer. Hammering should not, 
however, be unnecessarily violent. When they have been set, 
then the chnches are chpped back to not more than 3^-inch 
in length and are then flattened against the hoof wall after 
the ragged edges of the nails and the nail holes have been rasped 
away. All. sharp edges extending over the edge of the shoe are 
also rasped away. 

Shoeing Mules. — Mules are shod the same as horses except 
that differently shaped shoes are used, as shown in Fig. 200. 







Fig. 200. — Shoes. 



238 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

This difference is made necessary by the longer and narrower 
hoof, which requires a broader heel-base for proper 
support. 

Shoeing Saddle Animals. — Many horsemen prefer plain shoes 
for saddle animals, but for travel in a mountainous country heel 
calks are recommended. They should not exceed ^-inch in 
height and should not be set further than 3^-inch back of the 
heels. Toe calks are not recommended for saddle animals but 
are very satisfactory for use on draft animals. 

HOBBLING 

Double Hobbles. — These may be attached to either the fore- 
legs or the hind legs, although they are seldom used on the latter. 
They should be buckled about the legs just above or below the 
pasterns and should not be drawn so tight as to impede circu- 
lation of the blood. 

A very satisfactory substitute for leather hobbles may be 
had by using a rope, preferably of cotton. This is looped about 
one leg, twisted about itself for a distance of approximately 8 
inches, then tied around the other leg. 

Picket Hobble.— The common practice of buckhng a picket 
hobble to the foreleg is one to be avoided; an animal tied in 
this manner will invariably throw itseK and possibly sustain 
severe injuries if it becomes frightened and attempts to run. 
The safest method is to attach the hobble to a hind leg, thus 
leaving the animal's forelegs free and allowing it greater freedom 
of motion if it does start to fall. The probability of stifling 
an animal by attaching the picket hobble to a hind leg 
is small, a wide-spread behef to the contrary notwithstanding. 
Furthermore, if a hind leg is hobbled, there is httle or 
no danger of rope " burns " being inflicted on the other 
legs. 

Side Hobbles. — These may be used on an animal that has 
become so adept in the manipulation of regular double hobbles 
that they no longer serve as an adequate means of confining it 
to a limited area. 

Ordinary double hobbles are used, however, but the short 
chain that connects them is replaced by a longer one and the 
two legs on one side are fastened together. When first used 
on an animal this chain should be long enough to allow the 



LIVE STOCK 



239 



legs and feet to assume their natural position as the animal 
stands still; it is shortened as the animal learns to travel 
better. 

Such a method of hobbling is known in the South as " side 
Uning." 

It seldom proves effective on a hoi"se that paces. 

Cross Hobbles. — These are attached to the front and hind 
legs of opposite sides as shown in Fig. 201, and are especially 
effective when double hobbles or side hobbles fail to prevent 




Fig. 201. — Cross hobble. 



an animal from straying long distances. The method is known 
in the South as " cross lining." 

Horseshoe Hobbles. — These are for use on an animal that 
stands quiet while being approached but manages to keep just 
out of reach and thereby avoid being caught. An ordinar}- 
horseshoe is sUpped about the leg over the cannon-bone and 
pushed downward till it fits moderately tight. It usually pre- 
vents an animal from running. 

Chaining. — This method of preventing an animal from stray- 
ing or from running away when approached consists merely of 
hnking a chain into a single, or picket, hobble; when the animal 
starts to run the chain whips the other legs. Such a chain 
should be about 2 feet long. 

An animal that is . hobbled should not be picketed at the 
same time; it is not only a dangerous practice, but is also quite 
unnecessarv. 



240 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 




1. Nose 

2. Cheek 

3. Jaw 

4. Side of head 

5. Face 

6. Neck 

7. Mane 

8. Gullet 

9. Withers 

10. ShoiUder 

11. Arm 

12. Elbow 

13. Caston 



Fig. 202. — Parts of the horse. 



14. Knee 

15. Cannon 

16. Ankle 

17. Pastern 

18. Hoof 

19. Back 

20. Loins 

21. Rump or croup 

22. Ribs 

23. Flank 

24. Hip 

25. Thigh 

26. Buttock 



27. Belly 

28. Stifle 

29. Umbilicus 

30. Sheath 

31. Chestnut 

32. Fetlock 

33. Breast 

34. Hock 

35. Leg or stifle 

36. Coronet 

37. Poll 

38. Chin " 



DISEASES 
1. HORSES 

Horses are susceptible to such a multitude of ailments and 
injuries that a comprehensive treatise on the subject would re- 
quire a volume too large and too expensive for the field man to 
"barry about in his pack; consequently only the more common 
diseases, particularly those which may be expected to develop 
in the field, will be considered here. 

Wind Colic. — Causes. — Overfeeding, watering while hot, use of 
feed to which the animal has not yet become accustomed, ordi- 
nary indigestion resulting from improper mastication, or sys- 
temic disorders. The affection is not contagious, infectious, or 
in the nature of an epidemic. 



LIVE STOCK 241 

Symptoms. — The animal lies down frequently but soon gets 
up and walks about with short irregular steps and with the back 
" humped," it looks back at the sides and flanks, which may 
be distended or appear bloated, and the bowels are clogged. 
This condition of the bowels is directly responsible for all the 
symptoms displayed; gases generated by fermentation of the 
contents of the stomach and intestines are not allowed to es- 
cape, and the result is that these organs soon become distended 
to an extent that subjects other internal organs to severe pres- 
sure and thereby interferes with their normal action. 

Treatment. — Apply turpentine to the back immediately in 
front of the hip ''couphng"; such appKcations may also be 
made to the umbilicus. (See Fig. 202.) Care must be taken 
not to rub the turpentine in or to confine it to one spot by means 
of bandages, or bhstering and removal of hair will result. An 
ounce of chloral hydrate is also good. The animal should be 
kept rather strenuously exercised, and such other measures as 
will tend to keep the bowels open should be adopted. 

As a general rule wind colic is not fatal. 

Many horses are so constituted as to suffer an attack nearly 
every day, and always on the slightest change of feed. 

Spasmodic Colic. — Causes. — The chief cause of this affection is 
the accumulation of large masses of indigested material in the 
intestines, preventing escape of the gases arising from fermen- 
tation, and thereby causing great pressure against the internal 
organs. This pressure is responsible for the internal pains 
suffered. 

Symptoms. — Similar to those manifested in common wind 
colic but more pronounced; roUing is more vigorous and more 
pain is apparent, excessive perspiration may appear, and in 
advanced stages the ears and nose become cold; spasms of pain 
are intermittent with brief periods of comparative relief, and 
each spasm is more severe than the preceding one. 

Treatment. — Action must be prompt as soon as the symp- 
toms are recognized. Drench with a quart of warm water into 
which a teacupful of Epsom salt has been thoroughly boiled. 
(For Drenching, see page 267.) Repeat the dose if favorable 
results' are not obtained within an hour. Chloral hydrate may 
also be given, the same as for \s^nd coHc. 

If neither of these treatments proves effective an attempt 
should be made to remove the obstruction from the intestines 



242 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

by hand. A viciously inclined animal may be thrown or it 
may be tied as shown in Fig. 198. After this has been done, 
and before the operation proper begins, the attendant should 
have his hand and arm weU oiled or greased in order that none 
of the delicate membranes encountered may be abraded. Ordi- 
narily the intestines are clogged at a point where the obstruc- 
tion may be reached and removed by hand. 

Another method of removing the obstruction, by relaxation 
of the intestine walls, is to place a twist or a large handful of 
leaf tobacco as far up in the intestines as it may be forced by | 
hand. 

Large injections of warm water may also bring reHef . 

If none of these remedies gives relief, the animal may be 
tapped, but this operation should be performed only by a com- 
petent veterinarian, and the adoption of such a method by an 
inexperienced person is not recommended. 

Founder. — Causes. — This is due, in the majority of cases, to 
over-feeding or over-watering while an animal is very warm 
or tired, but it may occur as the result of hard driving over a 
rough road. It attacks the forefeet, the hoofs of which even- 
tually grow out long and irregular and turn up at the toe; the 
soles are also affected and may protrude downward to an extent 
that prevents the edges of the hoof from resting on the ground. 

Symptoms. — These are frequently, but not always, preceded by 
symptoms of colic. The feet are extended forward, and as much 
of the body's weight as possible is borne on the heels, the hind 
feet are brought well forward under the body to relieve the 
forefeet of pressure, breathing may be laborious, pulse rapid, 
nostrils dilated, hoofs painful and feverish, and the animal may 
lie down for long periods. 

Treatment. — Make alternate appUcations of hot and cold 
water to the hoofs for two or three hours; give haK an ounce 
of nitrate of potash in the drinking water twice a day, and 
provide clean bedding, a roomy staU, and plenty of rest. 

Distemper. — This disease (febris pyogenica) is confined chiefly 
to young horses, seldom attacks mules, and generally leaves an 
animal immune from further attacks. It ranges from an almost 
imperceptible form to maUgnant distemper, and is correspond- 
ingly serious in its effects. 

Causes. — Contact with infected animals or surroundings. 

Symptoms. — Slight or marked fever, depending upon the gen- 



LIVE STOCK 243 

eral physical condition of the animal, appears first. This is fol- 
lowed by a watery discharge of a whitish color coming from the 
nose and air passages; there is loss of appetite, sluggishness is 
noticeable, slight chills occm*, the coat is rough and dry and the 
hair stands erect; the animal has a dejected appearance, and 
stands with low-hung head and with the ears back. Frequent 
sneezing or coughing produces sounds which indicate surplus 
moisture in the lungs and air passages. Repeated attempts to 
drink result in the greater part of the water being spilled from 
the mouth, this being due to a sore throat. The discharge from 
the nostrils gradually changes from a whitish to a bluish color, 
becomes sticky and thicker, finally turns to a yellowish color, 
and increases in volume. Cessation of fever indicates a fully 
developed stage of the disease, and, conversely, the fever dis- 
appears at this stage. A sweUing at the forward part of the 
throat distends the parts beneath the jaws and is decidedly 
puffed and very sensitive to the touch, becoming more so as 
the disease progresses. Rehef is at once apparent as soon as 
this swelhng breaks, and in case it does not break of its own 
accord it should be lanced when it appears to have reached 
the point of greatest distention, and the pus allowed to escape. 

The discharge from it, and from other abscesses that may 
appear on the sides of the head or at other points on the body, 
stops in from two to five days. The animal should experience 
no permanent ill effects from the disease unless perhaps it may 
be left a " roarer." 

Treatment. — After the discharges have been stopped, provide 
fresh, clean quarters, clean feed and water, and plenty of rest 
for complete recovery. Keep the animal warm. To reduce fever 
give a handful of Glauber salts three times a day. 

If infection of other animals is undesirable the sick animal 
should be kept in secluded quarters at least 100 yards from 
other stock. Wholesale infection may eventually prove best, 
however, by reason of the fact that so far as a particular herd is 
concerned the trouble is over for all time. 

Glanders — Farcy. — The average horseman attempts to classify 
glanders and farcy as two separate and distinct diseases, when as 
a matter of fact the latter is simply an external indication of 
the presence of the former. Veterinarians have not yet been 
able to combat the disease successfully, and the most reUable 
method of treatment is to kill the animal as soon as it is defin- 



244 HANDBOOK TOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

itely known to be infected. The disease may be temporarily 
checked or even forced into a dormant stage, but eventually it 
reappears and always with fatal results. Such a stage of dor- 
mancy may cover a period of months or even years, but no per- 
manent relief other than shooting is possible. 

The disease is infectious and contagious, and the animal should 
be quarantined as soon as the symptoms are recognized. Nearly 
all State legislatures have enacted laws requiring owners of in- 
fected animals to notify certain authorities immediately upon 
discovery that the disease is present; such officers then make 
a careful investigation of the case and the infected animal is 
ordered disposed of at once, the owner being wholly or in part 
reimbursed for the loss thus sustained. 

There seems to be no authentic record of cattle ever having 
been attacked, but sheep are more or less susceptible, while 
mules are seldom affected. It may be transmitted to man by 
contagion or infection, and persons so infected should secure 
expert medical attention at the earUect possible moment. 

The disease is due to a micro-organism called bacillus mallei. 

Causes. — Either by contagion, or by contact with infected 
animals or articles used in connection with their care, litter and 
blankets being especially good vehicles for transmission of the 
germs. 

Symptoms. — Fever, sluggishness, dulness, and a dry, rough 
coat. Numerous small abscesses appear in the skin, and are 
known as farcy " buds " or " buttons." Post-mortem exam- 
ination reveals the presence in the lungs of numerous small 
punctures caused by abscesses, and these are no doubt responsible 
for the fatal termination of the diseases. 

Treatment. — Keep the infected animal strictly quarantined in 
sanitary quarters, and supply clean feed, pure water, and com- 
plete rest until the proper authorities issue further directions. 
The quarters, and all articles used in connection with the care 
of the animal, should be burned immediately after the death of 
the animal, and the same disposition of the carcass should also 
be made. 

The following remarks on page 119, U. B., 1915, under the 
subject of disposition of carcasses may prove of interest to persons 
not familiar with effective means of disposition in such cases: 

Reg. G-27. The carcasses of all animals which die on the National 
Forest from contagious or infectious diseases must be burned, and 



LIVE STOCK 245 

the carcasses of all animals which die in the close vicinity of water 
must be removed immediately, and buried or b\imed. 

Comment on this regulation is as follows: 

"The carcasses of animals dying from blackleg, anthrax, glanders, 
and other bacterial diseases scatter germs on the range when they 
decompose, and a healthy animal may contract the disease. There- 
fore, to prevent the poUution of water supply and the spread of the 
disease among human beings, as weU as hve stock, this rule will be 
strictly enforced. 

How to Burn a Dead Animal. — The destruction by flre of the carcass 
of an animal weighing perhaps a thousand poimds is not an easy 
matter. One of the best methods known is to dig a hole as close as 
possible to the carcass, about 2 feet deep and large enough otherwise to 
contain it. On the sides of this hole dig two or three small ditches or 
trenches sloping from the surface of the ground into the hole. These 
wiU secure a strong draft, which will aid materially in the success of 
the work. Having filled this hole with dry wood, pUed so as to give 
the maximum draft, the animal can readily be rolled onto the pUe, and 
with an ad-litional supply of wood placed around the carcass the com- 
bustion wiU generally be almost complete. The earth taken from the 
hole can then be thrown back into it, covering what few bones are left 
unbumed, and the job will be completed in a very satisfactory manner. 

Owners Must Dispose of Dead Animals. — Where the ownership of a 
dead animal can be ascertained the work of burning or burying the 
carcass must be attended to by the owner or his employees. So far as 
practicable forest officers will notify persons of the presence upon the 
range of dead animals owned by them. Where this ownership can not 
be ascertained the duty of carrying out the regulation falls upon the 
local forest offlcer." 



Since man is not immune to glanders, he should exercise the 
greatest precautions not to contract it. He should not remain 
in an infected animal's quarters longer than necessary, and should 
be especially careful not to allow cracks or open sores on the 
hands to come in contact with any part of the carcass. 

Bets. — Horsemen disagree widely as to whether such a dis- 
ease as bots, as the term is generally understood, really exists, 
some contending that the symptoms ascribed to the disease are 
due to other causes and do not indicate that the animal is suf- 
fering from " bots." 

The disease as recognized by those who insist it does exist 
usually proves fatal if allowed to progress unattended. 

Causes. — Said to be caused by the accumulation in an ani- 
mal's stomach of the eggs of the " nit fly " or " bot fly." Here 
a certain process of development produces a worm or grub 



24G ITANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

similar to that found in the backs of cattle and known as a 
" woK " or " warble." The eggs are deposited by the fly on the 
animal's hair, and are found in greatest numbers on the inner 
sides of the fore legs and below the knees, where they appear 
as minute yellow specks. Their attachment to the hair pro- 
duces a tickhng sensation which causes an animal to nibble at 
them and thus take them into the stomach through the throat. 

As development progresses here they finally attach them- 
selves to the stomach w^alls, w^here they remain and increase in 
size, sometimes to haK an inch in length and almost as much 
in diameter. Post-mortem examination may show them clus- 
tered so closely together as to completely hide the walls. 

Treatment. — The primary stages are so likely to escape ob- 
servation that the disease is usually fully developed before it 
becomes noticeable to the average horseman. The best treat- 
ment is of a preventive nature. The animal's stomach should 
be kept in a healthy condition by frequent doses, administered 
in the feed, of some article that will assist nature in throwing 
off the accumulations of eggs. Any good worm medicine will 
serve the purpose, or a small handful of powdered leaf tobacco 
in the feed once a month will do as well. Kerosene oil smeared 
on the animal's legs will repel the flies and at the same time 
prove so distasteful that the animal will nibble at its legs less. 

Pink Eye. — This is a contagious fever and is so designated 
from the red, swollen eyes incident to it. One attack usually 
renders the animal immune thereafter, although this rule is not 
invariable, 

It may be transmitted through the medium of htter, blankets, 
or other articles used about the animal, or may even be carried 
in the attendant's clothes. Horses from three to five years of 
age are attacked most severely. 

Causes. — Generally results from contact with infected animals 
or articles used in their care. 

Symptoms. — Dulness, violet color of natural openings, partial 
muscular paralysis, excessive lachrymal secretions that in run- 
ning down over the sides of the nose may cause bhsters, and 
partial or total bhndness or deafness or both. The disease runs 
from two to three weeks. 

Treatment. — Quarantine the animal in clean, well- ventilated 
quarters, and supply clean feed, water, and litter. Tempt the 
appetite with vegetables, apples, sugar, or anything the animal 



LIVE STOCK 247 

exhibits a special fondness for. Copious injections of cold water 
will reduce the fever. 

Horse Pox. — Horse pox is infectious, occurs chieflj^ in young 
horses and generally leaves an animal immune from further 
attacks. It should not prove fatal if proper care and attention 
are given. 

Causes. — Unsanitary sun-oiuidings, such as polluted water, 
muddy stalls, poor feed and improper care. 

Symptoms. — Small eruptions appear generally or locally in 
from three to four days and are most prominent on the mucous 
membranes, where they are of a bright-red color, and on the 
pastern joints where they have the appearance of small bird- 
shot under the skin. At a later stage a small, yellowish spot 
appears at or near their center and the eruptions become softer. 
Scabs appear still later and the pocks are completely healed in 
from seven to ten days. The eyes assume a reddish, feverish 
appearance, the pulse is accelerated, the appetite is poor and 
excessive thirst is apparent. 

Treatment. — Feed clean hay, bran mash, vegetables, apples 
or other articles the animal exhibits a liking for. Protect from 
cold drafts with blankets. The legs may be protected by being 
clothed in an old pair of overalls supported from the blanket 
by pins. 

Gangrene.— This exists in two form's kno-^ii as "dry" and 
" moist " gangrene. The former will be considered first. 

Causes. — Usually due to continuous pressure on one spot of 
an ill-fitting harness or saddle, but may be caused by forcing 
an animal to he in wet, dirty litter. 

Symptoms. — DuUed sensory nerves, resulting from dead tis- 
sues, dry leathery appearance of the skin and a general condi- 
tion of drowsiness. 

Treatment. — Supply clean htter, adjust the saddle or harness 
until it fits properly and apply fatty solutions or moist poultices. 

Moist gangrene is characterized by swollen, inflamed, and 
moist skin, and the secretions produced may result in spreading 
of the affection unless properly controlled. After sloughing 
stops treat the same as for dry gangrene. 

Rabies. — The only available treatment for this disease is to 
kill the animal so affected. So far as known, there is no 
remedy that will check or cure it. 

Causes. — Usually transmitted by the bite of an infected animal, 



248 HANDBOOK FOR EANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

but may be contracted through contact of an open sore or wound 
with the slavers of such an animal. 

Sy^nptoms. — If resulting from a bite, the wound may heal over 
outside and appear to be properly healed inside. Internal heal- 
ing, however, is not complete and usually produces such a sen- 
sation that in its attempts to secure relief the animal finally 
reopens the wound with its teeth. The most noticeable symp- 
toms generally manifest themselves within about a month after 
the disease has been contracted, although instances have been 
known where no symptoms were developed until six or eight 
months or even a year afterward. Severe spasms occur at irreg- 
ular intervals between periods of calmness and little apparent 
suffering and are so intensely painful and so affect the nervous 
system that the animal loses all control of itself. It rears, 
plunges, strikes, bites, and kicks at other animals or its stall 
or manger, 1 suffers from the most rigid contractions of the mus- 
cles, is extremely irritable and vicious, the eyes are blood-shot 
and the vision is affected, assaults on the staU may be made 
with such insane vigor that broken teeth or even broken jaws 
may result, and in its crazy rearing and plunging the animal 
usually brings about its own death by self-inflicted injuries. 

Treatment. — The animal should be shot and put out of its 
misery at once. The carcass should be burned (see page, 244, 
Glanders-Farcy) or buried at a sufficient depth to prevent its 
disinterment by hogs or other animals. 

The attendant should exercise the greatest care in venturing 
close to the animal during its periods of calmness. There is 
absolutely no means of knowing how long such a period may 
last. It may continue for hours or it may pass within a few 
minutes. 

Blind Staggers. — Causes. — Generally due to the use of feed 
that is wormy, musty, or sour. Results are usually fatal. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptom, from which the 
disease derives its name, is partial muscular paralysis which 
causes the animal to stagger about in an aimless or erratic 
fashion. It may rear, plunge, kick, or bite, or show other indi- 
cations of a disordered brain, or have spasmodic fits or spasms, 
and usually dies within a few hours. 

1 Many veterinarians claim that inanimate objects are never attacked. 
In three different cases observed by the writer the manger has been 
severely damaged by the infected animals. 



i 



LIVE STOCK 249 

Treatment. — In most cases the primary stages go unobserved, 
and after the later stages have developed little can be done to 
secure relief. An experienced veterinary may handle the case 
successfully if called in time. Otherwise there is little hope of 
recovery. 

Lampas. — This disease is generally known as " lampers." 

Causes. — In young horses, cutting teeth; in old ones, impaired 
digestive powers, or inflammation of the hard palate. 

Symptoms. — The roof of the mouth is swoUen downward and 
in an aggravated case this sweUing may continue to such an 
extent that it projects beyond the ends of the upper teeth. 
The animal will quite often be noticed rubbing the root of its 
tail against trees and buildings or posts. 

Treatment. — Lacerate the affected parts shghtly with the 
point of a sharp knife and produce moderate bleeding. Bathe 
the lacerations in a solution of alum water, using a dram of 
alum dissolved in a pint of warm water. Continue the treat- 
ment until the wounds have healed. Give only soft feeds, and 
keep fresh, cold water before the animal at all times. If lampas 
results from indigestion, remove the cause. 

Injuries and Other Ailments. — The most common injuries to 
which horses are subject in the field are lameness, external or 
internal poisoning, burns, cuts, bruises, and abscesses in their 
various forms. 

Lameness. — Causes. — Lameness may result from any one of 
a number of causes. An animal may step on an irregular stone 
and twist or sprain one or more joints; hard riding or heavy 
work may result in strained or displaced tendons; sharp blows 
or even apparently shght bruises may cause severe lameness, or 
continued travel through very muddy country may have the 
same effect. 

Symptoms. — Lameness in a fore leg wall be indicated by quick 
upward motions of the animal's head when the weight of the 
body comes on the injured member and the weight will be shifted 
to the opposite member as quickly as possible. This causes the 
animal to take short, quick steps with the lame leg, and as soon 
as the weight of the body has been transferred to the other leg 
the head and neck will be dropped. If lameness occurs in both 
forelegs the steps will be unnaturally short and quick on either 
side, the head will be held high, the shoulders will be kept rigid 



250 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

and the hind feet will be kept well under the body in order to 
relieve the fore legs of as much weight as possible. 

If lame in a hind leg the animal will object to backing and 
the hip corresponding to the injured leg will have a greater 
upward and downward motion when the animal travels. When 
both hind legs are affected backing will be still more painful and 
all the weight possible will be thrown on the front feet. This 
causes the head to be extended and held low. 

Lameness in the heel or ankle is indicated when the foot is 
held forward or kept suspended above the gi'ound. The animal 
moves with reluctance, and upon being allowed to remain quiet 
will immediately assume the position mentioned. 

Shoulder lameness is indicated when the point of the hoof, 
or the toe, is rested on the ground. In such cases the foot is 
seldom extended forward but the knee is usually bent. 

The same symptoms indicate lameness in the elbow joint. 

If lameness occurs in the knee or hock the joint is held as 
rigid as possible and bent only when the animal is forced to do so. 

Lameness in the hind legs is much more serious than in the 
fore legs, and if hip lameness is apparent the horse may be con- 
sidered worthless, since the disease can not be cured. If there 
is reason to doubt the existence of hip lameness rap the hip^ 
bone sharply. The affection will be indicated by a sudden 
flinching of the animal. 

Treatment. — The best general treatment for any lameness is 
alternate apphcations of hot and cold water. Bandages should 
be used. Such treatment should continue for from one to six 
hours, depending upon the severity of the injury. Afterward 
the injured parts should be bathed twice a day with equal parts 
of turpentine and camphor, but this should not be rubbed vig- 
orously or confined by means of bandages, or bUstering and 
removal of hair will follow. This treatment should be continued 
for from one to six or seven days. 

Internal Poisoning. — Causes. — This may result from mistakes 
made in fiUing prescriptions for medicine to be given an animal, 
may be caused by the animal eating loco weeds or other poison- 
ous plants, or may result from snake bites or from numerous 
insect stings. 

Symptoms. — The general symptoms of poisoning are thirst, 
laborious breathing, convulsions, nervousness, staggering, wide- 
spread feet, external swellings if due to sn^^ke bites or insect 



LIVE STOCK 251 

stings, accelerated pulse, and bloating and dysentery accom- 
panied by large quantities of mucus. 

Treatment. — Drench with half a pint of cinchona in a quart 
of lukewarm water. Repeat the dose every five minutes until 
rehef is secured. 

Loco Poisoning. — Causes. — This poisoning is caused by ani- 
mals eating a weed known as the " loco " or "rattle" weed, of 
which there are two principal varieties. These are the varieties 
known as Aragallus lamherli and Astragalus rnollissimus. The 
former poisons sheep and cattle and the latter poisons horses. 
Cattle and horses do not as a rule rehsh the weed, but since 
it appears early in the spring before other green forage can be 
obtained they soon form the habit of eating it. 

Symptoms. — These do not appear until a large amount of the 
weed has been eaten, after which the animal's eyes assume a 
glassy appearance; it is extremely nervous and often vicious, 
steps quicklj^ and with unnaturally high movements of the knee 
and hock joints, and upon being suddenly startled or aroused 
may have convulsions. In the final stages of poisoning the 
stomach walls are so affected as to be unable to perform their 
functions and the animal soon weakens and dies. 

Treatment. — Loco poisoning can not be treated successfully 
in its advanced stages. During the primary stages affected 
animals should be restricted from range areas in which the 
plant occurs. In addition to this horses should be given one- 
half ounce of Fowler's solution of arsenic once a day. Cattle 
should be given from one to three grains of strychnin a day. 
Sheep should be given one-third that amount of strychnin. 

Poison Wounds. — Causes. — These may be due to the bite of 
a snake, tarantula, or centiped, or to numerous tick bites or 
insect stings. In aU cases their treatment is the same. 

Symptoms. — Partial muscular paralysis causes staggering, fall- 
ing or other similar action; stiffness appears in the hmbs, which 
are held wide apart; the head is hung low, thick, difficult breath- 
ing is prominent, and con\ailsions may occur. In most cases a 
swelling forms about the wound. 

Treatment. — Locate the wound as soon as possible. If caused 
by a snake bite and bleeding is not profuse, make it so by an 
incision in the wound and aUow the blood to flow freely for 
about five minutes. If the bite is on a limb apply a tourniquet 
after profuse bleeding has been secured. This may be impro- 



252 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

vised from a halter- or picket-rope, bridle rein, or a string front 
the harness or saddle. By thrusting a stick beneath it and 
twisting the tourniquet up tight poison may be prevented from 
entering the circulatory system. However, the tourniquet will 
interfere with bleeding and should not be applied until after 
bleeding has stopped. Wash the wound thoroughly with water, 
into which a few drops of carbolic acid have been put, and then 
apply turpentine, ammonia, or kerosene oil and salt. Perman- 
ganate of potassium is also very effective, even for man. Allow 
the animal two or three days for rest. 

If due to numerous insect stings, the symptoms in severe cases 
are similar to those resulting from snake bites. Bathe the ani- 
mal in a strong solution of soda and water, rubbing thoroughly 
and vigorously to insure contact of the solution with the wounds, 
and then allow a good rest. 

In removing ticks from an animal's body care must be taken 
to see that their heads are not left in the skin or serious com- 
plications may ensue. VaseUne, bacon grease, or lard smeared 
over the ticks will cause them to loosen their hold and diop off. 

Bums. — Burns of different degrees of severity demand dif- 
ferent treatment, yet in all cases the treatment must be such as 
to keep the air from the wound. This should not be done by 
means of bandages unless circumstances absolutely demand it, 
and then the bandages should be Ught enough and of a sufficiently 
coarse weave to allow the animal heat to escape from beneath 
them. Ointments, such as carbolated vasehne, or others of the 
consistency of syrup, will be found most satisfactory. In severe 
cases, after the wounds have been washed carefully, an apphca- 
tion of alcohol, eggs, and milk will be found effective. The whites 
of two eggs should be thoroughly mixed into a pint each of al- 
cohol and sweet milk. This mixture should be applied twice 
each day. Castor oil also makes an excellent dressing for burns 
and can be secured at any drug store. 

Very shght burns need no treatment except careful washing. 
Applications of castor oil will do them no harm. 

Cuts. — A general idea of the severity of a cut may be deter- 
mined from the manner in which blood flows from it. Arterial 
bleeding is indicated by strong regular spurts of bright-red blood, 
and such a cut should be given prompt attention. A tourniquet 
should be used when possible. In arterial bleeding it is appUed 
between the wound and the heart and twisted tight. (See 



' " LIVE STOCK 253 

Poison Wounds, Treatment, page 251.) This retards the flow of 
blood and permits the attendant to dress the wound with loss 
difficulty. If coagulation or clotting does not occur within a 
reasonable length of time, ligation should be resorted to. This 
is done by securing the severed artery ends and tying them shut 
with a thread, preferably of silk. This may appear to the inex- 
perienced as a dangerous procedure, but nature will soon provide 
means whereby circulation will not long be impeded. 

If a vein has been cut that fact will be indicated by a slow, 
steady flow of dark-colored blood, and coagulation will soon stop, 
bleeding in an ordinary case. If a tourniquet is necessary it 
must be applied at a point which brings the wound between 
it and the heart. This is due to the fact that the veins carry 
the blood back to the heart. 

Blood which slowly oozes from a cut in numerous small drops 
or a few large ones indicates lacerated capillaries, and the wound 
needs no attention other than dressing. * 

Care must be taken in dressing any cut to see that it is washed 
clean, and its subsequent treatment should be such as to pre- 
clude any possibility of infection. Frequent applications of tur- 
pentine will serve to destroy germs, and a mixture of turpentine 
and camphor, equal parts, will remove soreness. When turpen- 
tine is used alone grease should be smeared on the hair around 
the cut. Otherwise removal of the hair will result. 

Proud Flesh. — Causes. — This may occur as the result of im- 
proper attention and consequent infection of a cut or it may 
be due to systemic disorders or constitutional weakness. 

Symptoms. — Proud flesh may be identified by its pink, froth}^ 
appearance. If present under the skin the latter will be swollen 
and sensitive and will not readily resume its former outUne after 
being pressed into. 

Treatment. — Apply burnt alum or granulated sugar twice 
daily. To burn the alum place it in an inverted lard-pail lid 
or in a tin-cup or can, and heat it. When cool pulverize the 
ash and sprinkle this over the affected parts. Bandages should 
not be used to confine it. Sugar is Kkewise sprinkled on the 
parts. 

Bruises. — Causes. — Blows, kicks from other animals, falls, and 
similar accidents. 

Symptoms. — External swellings may appear or no visible symp- 
toms whatever may be present. For this reason the degi'ee of 



254 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

severity of a bruise can be determined only by speculation, unless 
the accident has been witnessed by the attendant or other 
persons. As a rule, however, lameness and stiffness appear, and 
unless experienced in such matters the horseman may conclude 
that certain tendons or ligaments have been strained. 

Treatment. — Make frequent applications of hot water to the 
affected parts, follow with applications of cooler water, and 
finally use cold water. Continue the treatment until the sore- 
ness has disappeared. 

Punctures. — Causes. — Stepping on nails, pieces of glass, stub- 
ble, or other sharp objects long enough to penetrate the sole of 
the .hoof and injure the inner sole. 

S]jinptoms. — These may not appear until weeks after the 
accident, and then lameness may develop. In many instances 
the outer portion, or the point of entrance to the puncture, 
heals over and is not discernible to a casual observer, and the 
animal's lameness may be ascribed to any one of a dozen dif- 
ferent causes, none of which is responsible for the trouble.^ 

Treatment. — Give the sole of the hoof a thorough examination 
for openings and, if necessary, remove the shoe. When the open- 
ing has been located trim it out funnel-shape and allow the 
pus to escape. Turpentine may be injected with a small syringe 
and infection prevented. Keep the wound open and clean until 
no more pus forms. The entrance of dirt may be prevented by 
binding a tow sack' about the hoof and under the sole. 

Abscesses. — Causes. — These are caused in most cases by 
blows inflicted at such a point on the body and in such a way 
that the deadened tissues can not escape, but decay and form 
pus under the skin. 

Symptoms. — A sweUing appears at the point of injury, and 
when pressed is found to be filled with a soft, watery fluid. 
Extreme sensitiveness is apparent and the skin is feverish. 

Treatment. — ^As a general rule abscesses break of their own 
accord and the pus escapes through the opening. If^ however, 
it appears that the swelUng has reached its point of greatest dis- 
tension and no opening occurs, it should be lanced. This may 
be done by thrusting the point of a knife-blade through the skin 
at a point where complete drainage of the abscess may be ob- 
tained. Keep the wound open as long as pus flows and inject 
one or two drops of turpentine twice a day. If an offensive 
odor is present apply hydrogen peroxid twice daily until " boil- 



LIVE STOCK 255 

ing " no longer occurs. Hydrogen peroxid disinfects only in 
surface wounds where it is exposed to the air. On deep lacera- 
tions use a carbolic or coal-tar disinfectant. 

Harness and Saddle Galls. — Causes. — These are the result of 
the use of improperly fitting harness and saddles and are in the 
nature of abscesses. 

Symptoms. — Similar to those of other abscesses except perhaps 
the hair may be worn off and the skin may appear red and 
inflamed. 

Treatment. — Since they are of the same nature as other ab- 
scesses they should be treated accordingly. Wash with clean 
water, into which a few drops of carboUc acid have been put; 
then treat with appHcations of turpentine and camphor, equal 
parts. The animal may be worked during treatment if the 
wounds are kept clean and the harness or saddle kept in a similar 
condition and properly fitted. The animal should, however, be 
^given a complete rest if the galls fail to respond to this treatment . 

Sitfasts. — Causes. — These result from continuous pressure of 
a harness or saddle on one spot, often extend deep into the 
flesh or muscles, and are similar in nature to corns on the human 
foot. 

Sym-ptoms. — A hard, almost horny, growth appears on the 
flesh, is bare and leathery and very sensitive, and increases in 
size as the animal is used. 

Treatment. — Some horsemen claim that sitfasts can be removed 
only by freezing and, in accordance with that theory, turn af- 
fected animals on the range during the winter months. Under 
certain conditions this treatment might possibly prove effective, 
but where cures are obtained in such cases they are undoubt- 
edly due more to the rest than to the freezing. The growths 
may be removed with a sharp knife or razor and with but Uttle 
discomfort to the animal. Antiseptic precautions should be ob- 
served and the animal given a complete rest until recovery. 

Fistula. — Causes. — This trouble, known generally as " fistulo," 
occurs at a horse's withers as the result of an ill-fitting harness or 
saddle. It is of the. same nature as any abscess and should be 
treated accordingly. (See Abscesses, Treatment, page 254.) 

Most horsemen limit the term " fistula " to its meaning as 
applied to this particular trouble. As a matter of fact any 
abscess bearing tubes or " pipes " leading to an internal cavity 
is a fistula, regardless of its location on an animal's bod}-. 



256 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOOOSMEN 

Poll Evil. — This is another abscess which appears at the back 
of the head between or behind the ears as the result of a bruise 
sustained from a blow against low, overhead beams or other 
similar articles. Treat the same as any abscess. 

Quitter. — This abscess appears at the coronet of the hoof. 
(See Fig. 202.) It, too, is caused by a bruise and should be 
treated as any abscess. 

Sweeney. — Cannes. — This is an atrophic condition of the 
shoulder muscles and is caused by lack of exercise of those 
muscles, such as when an animal, suffering from lameness or 
other injuries, stands for long periods on one foot, leaving the 
muscles of the shoulder corresponding to the opposite leg in a 
continually relaxed condition. 

Symptoms. — Gradual withering away of the shoulder until it 
presents a perceptibly shrunken appearance, tightness of the 
skin against the flesh of the affected shoulder, extreme pain 
when the animal is forced to use the affected member. 

Treatment. — Unless injury of the leg is so severe as to pre- 
clude such treatment, force the animal to stand on it. This 
may be done by tying the other leg up to the body. Seize 
the skin of the shoulder and pull it outward from the flesh. 
A sharp, crackHng sound will be produced and indicates the 
tearing away of deadened tissues. The operation will cause the 
animal considerable pain, but will eventually prove beneficial if 
repeated twice daily. Apply powdered May-apple root in the 
form of an ointment, made of as much of the root as will lie on 
a dime, mixed into haK a teacupful of lard. Unless the lard 
is used bhstering will result. Ten cents worth of the root will 
furnish enough for twenty or thirty apphcations. One apphca- 
tion should be sufficient. 

Scratches. — Causes. — This is caused by forcing an animal to 
stand in wet, dirty litter or manure, or by overfeeding on grain 
or unwholesome forage or anything which tends to derange the 
system. 

Symptoms. — The skin on the fetlocks appears swollen and 
inflamed, cracks may appear in the skin and extend through 
to the flesh and a general tenderness and soreness of both will 
be apparent. 

Treatment. — Provide clean quarters for the animal to stand or 
lie in, cUp the hair from the fetlocks and apply carbolated 
vaseline or castor-oil to the skin three times a day. 



LIVE STOCK 257 



2. CATTLE 



The cattle industry requires a large amount of the average 
field man's attention on most National Forests and it is there- 
fore imperative that he famiharize himseK, to a certain extent 
at least, w^th conditions which directly affect the stock in his 
district. Badly diseased cattle are seldom found on the open 
range, but certain ailments to which cattle in all sections of the 
country are subject may be met with, and the field man should 
be able to take immediate steps looking to the cure or to the 
prevention of further infection. 

Only the most common diseases will be considered here. 

Bloat. — Causes. — This is a form of acute indigestion and may 
result from any one of a number of causes. Chief among these 
are overfeeding, feeding too much wet or frosty grass, or allow- 
ing access to large quantities of cold water when the paunch is 
full. Impaired digestive powers may also bring on the trouble. 

Symptoms. — Great uneasiness is apparent, belching occurs, 
excessive secretions of sahva cause " slobbering," the animal 
staggers and the eyeballs protrude unnaturally. The left side 
is greatly distended and, when tapped or thumped, gives back a 
hollow, drum-like sound. Difficult breathing occm-s as the result 
of unnatural pressure of the digestive organs against the lungs. 

Treatment. — Drench with a tablespoonful of aromatic spirits 
of ammonia in a pint of water, or a teaspoonful of turpentine 
in a pint of raw linseed-oil, or two tablespoonfuls of common 
soda in a pint of water. If these remedies fail the animal should 
be tapped. This is done by thrusting the point of a sharp 
knife-blade " through the skin and the wall of the paunch at a 
point immediately before the left hip-bone and half-way between 
it and the last rib. As the gas escapes from the paunch the 
latter will recede from the skin, and unless a pipe-stem, quiU, or 
similar article is inserted in the two openings they will no longer 
coincide and the escape of gas will be prevented. The regular 
instrument used by veterinaries for this purpose is known as a 
" trocar." 

A knife should be used only when no trocar is available. The 
wound will heal without treatment. 

Bloat occurs quite frequently in calves, and as a general rule 
is the result of overfeeding after they have missed a meal or two. 
They should be drenched with a pint of raw linseed-oil, oi- four 



258 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

tablespoonfu^-S of castor-oil, or half a pound of Epsom salt 
dissolved in warm water. 

Loss of Cud. — This is not a disease, but is an indication of a 
disordered digestive system. Feed bran mash and vegetables or 
other easily digested foods and keep the digestive organs in 
proper condition. 

Black Leg. — Causes. — This disease, also known as symptomatic 
anthrax, is caused by a germ called Bacillus anthracis emphysema- 
tosa, which means " air bloated." Formerly, it was generally be- 
lieved to infect most severely such cattle as ranged on low, 
marshy areas, where stagnant water or periodical floods occurred. 
In recent years, however, many veterinarians doubt if such 
lands have any direct influence on the disease's appearance. 
Thrifty, fat young cattle, from six to twenty-four months old, 
are most susceptible, although older cattle may be attacked. 
Infection is not, as generally supposed, transmitted through 
the alimentary canal, but the germs usually enter through wounds 
made by thorns, barbs, cacti, and other sharp-pointed agents. 
The- germs multiply only in the absence of oxygen, and large 
wounds are not, therefore, necessarily sources of infection. 
Black leg should not be confused with anthrax. The latter is 
caused by the germ bacillus anthracis, and attacks cattle of all 
ages, aU domestic animals, and even man. 

Symptoms. — If germs have entered through abrasions of the 
skin of the mouth the latter as well as the tongue will be so 
swoUen as to cause the tongue to protrude. In addition to the 
protruding tongue a high fever will result if the germs have 
entered at other points on the body. This will be accompanied 
by rapid respiration and loss of appetite and the animal will 
move with difficulty. These symptoms are followed by the 
appearance of tumors which, when pressed, give back a crackUng 
sound. Thick, dark blood may also ooze from the skin covering 
the tumors and the latter will be filled with gas. 

The tumors in anthrax proper are hard and show no indica- 
tions of containing gas. 

Death usually results in from six to forty-eight hours. Car- 
casses should be burned, as should also the litter or bedding 
upon which the animal has lain or been treated. (For burning 
of carcasses, see Glanders-Farcy, page 243.) 

Treatment. — Prevent access to range in low marshy areas, 
where pools or puddles of stagnant water may appear or where 



LIVE STOCK 259 

periodical floods may occur. The disease may be successfully 
combated, or at least checked, by any one who understands 
the use of virus, ^ but ordinarily the average person can do little 
except to administer three times daily a dram of carbolic acid 
weU diluted in water. (For measurement of medicine, see page 
349.) 

Mange. — Causes. — This disease, sometimes known as " cattle 
scabies," is caused by the presence of a parasite known as Psor- 
optes communis, var. hovis, which appears in greatest numbers 
in the skin of the neck and shoulders and about the root of the 
tail. The bite produces an itching sensation which causes the 
animal to rub or scratch until the hair is often removed and 
scabs appear. 

Symptoms. — Continual scratching or rubbing, gray or brown- 
ish scabs, thick, hard, dry, wrinkled skin. 

Treatment. — Dipping is the most effective treatment. (See 
Mange, page 263.) A second dipping in ten or twelve days is 
often required to kiU the mites which may have hatched after 
the first dipping. 

Cow Pox (Variola). — Causes. — Cow pox results from improper 
action of the organs 'intended to keep the skin in a healthy and 
normal condition. 

Symptoms. — Small nodules, about the size of buckshot, appear 
in the skin of the udder. These either break and form open 
sores or else they dry up and form scabs. 

Treatment. — Cow pox is of a seK-hmited nature and requires 
no treatment unless it appears advisable to remove soreness and 
this may be done by frequent appHcations of carbolated vaseline 
or of turpentine and camphor, equal parts. 

Lump Jaw (Actinomycosis). — Under extremely favorable con- 
ditions, such as a generally weakened physical state after calving, 
this may be transmitted to other cattle but should not be con- 
sidered as invariably contagious. 

Causes. — Due to the action and development of a vegetable 
parasite or fungus (Actinomyces), frequently found on grain husks 
and other vegetation. AU domestic animals, and even man, 
may be affected. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptom, and the one from 

^ Government vaccine may be obtained free of charge from the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



260 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

which the disease derives its name, is the appearance of a large 
tumor on the jaw, although other tumors may appear at differ- 
ent parts of the body. Final development of the tumor on the 
jaw usually results in death, as the animal soon loses the use of 
its jaws and vktually starves to death. 

Treatment. — Mix four tablespoonfuls of iodide of potash in a 
pint of Water and administer in about eight equal doses at the 
rate of one per day. Discontinue the treatment for a week; 
then repeat and continue alternate weekly treatment as long 
as necessary. Action of the medicine will be indicated by scales 
on the skin and discharges from the eyes and nose. 

Tuberculosis. — Causes. — Generally due to unsanitary sur- 
roundings. 

Symptoms. — Cheese-like nodules appear in the tissues of the 
body. Other prominent symptoms are a dry, rough coat, diffi- 
cult respiration after moderate exercise, coughing, tight appear- 
ance of the skin, and loss of appetite and flesh. Breathing is in- 
tensely laborious in the advanced stage and may be accom- 
panied by moaning, severe attachs of coughing occm-, the ex- 
tremities are cold and physical exhaustion is almost complete. 

Treatment. — Tuberculosis may be checked by injections of 
tuberculin, but this should not be attempted by an inexperienced 
person. 

Foul Feet. — Causes. — May be caused by forcing an animal to 
stand in dirty, muddy quarters, or may result from ranging it 
on soft ground where necessary wearing away of the hoof is 
prevented. 

Symptoms.— The disease appears in various stages, from small 
cracks in the skin to separation of the hoof and foot, and may 
even result in loss of the bone. 

Treatment. — In sUght attacks wash the wounds with carbolic 
acid and water, 1 to 50 parts, then apply turpentine and cam- 
phor, equal parts, twice daily. If the attack is severe and for- 
mations of pus are apparent beneath the wall or edge of the 
hoof, bore through the hoof wall with a gimlet or small knife- 
blade at the point of greatest distention and allow the pus to 
escape. Use a small syringe to inject the turpentine and cam- 
phor, keep out all dirt and filth, and see that the pus is allowed 
to escape as fast as it forms. Keep the animal on dry ground 
until recovery is complete. 

Foot and Mouth Disease. — Causes. — Generally due to use of 



LIVE STOCK 261 

contaminated range upon which cattle have been gi-azed 
too long. 

Symptoms. — Increase in temperature may occiu* even though 
the animal shivers, the hair is rough and dfy, and extreme sore- 
ness is apparent between the claws. In from four to eight days 
a practically continuous bhster covers the Hning of the mouth 
and excessive secretions of saliva result. At this stage the hoofs 
maj' loosen. 

Treatment. — Drench ^dth a pound of Epsom salt dissolved in 
boiling water and administered while lukewarm. Wash the 
mouth with hydrogen peroxid diluted to half-strength; see that 
the feet are perfectly clean; then apply turpentine and camphor, 
equal parts, to them till all soreness disappears. (For Drench- 
ing, see page 267.) 

Another effective treatment is to wash the mouth with a 100 
to 1 solution of coal-tar dip and stand the animal in a trough 
containing a 20 to 1 solution of the same mixture. Disinfect 
thoroughly. 

Milk Fever. — Causes. — This disease is not really a fever but 
partakes more of the nature of apoplexj^ and is pecuhar to calv- 
ing, fat cows being especially susceptible. Costiveness, lack of 
exercise, or rich feed may also cause it. 

Symptoms. — Partial paralysis of the hind quarters, staggering, 
difficult breathing, high pulse, insensibihty to pin pricks or other 
ordinary pain. 

Treatment. — Give a scant tablespoonful of nux vomica every 
two hours bj^ placing it on the tongue. Decrease the dose as 
soon as spasmodic muscular action appears. A physic should 
not be given, as it is slow in action and may even prove injurious. 
One treatment is to remove the urine by means of a catheter 
and empty the intestines by large injections of warm water. 
Another remedy, having a record of over 96% cures, consists 
of inflating the udder with sterilized air or oxygen or even water. 
This is given by means of a specially constructed kit wliich may 
be secured through any veterinary.^ 

Choking. — Causes. — Attempts to swallow rags, blocks of wood, 
pieces of leather, or similar articles. It may also occur when 
dry coarse feed is used. 



1 See Cir. 45, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



262 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Symptoms. — Attempts are made to disgorge the obstruction 
from the gullet, the flanks are drawn in at short intervals, the 
back is " humped," and excessive slobbering occurs. 

Treatment. — Drench with a pint of raw linseed-oil if the ob- 
struction can not be broken up by kneading or squeezing. As 
long as the drench is returned through the nose the obstruction 
remains stuck fast. As a last resort '' swabbing " may be nec- 
essary. Tie the animal in such a way that the extended head 
is in line with the neck, wrap one end of a flexible 3^-inch stick 
with a well greased cloth, then thrust iC down the throat and 
force the obstruction into the stomach. 

Warbles. — Causes. — These are caused by two kinds .of bots, 
viz.: Hypoderma hovis and H. lineata, which deposit eggs under 
an animal's skin. The larvae increase in size until eUiptical swell- 
ings, sometimes as large as walnuts, appear in and under the 
skin. These are known in many localities as " wolves." In 
others they may be confused with " screw- worms," which are 
the larval stage of a fly, Compsomyia macelleria. 

Symptoms. — SwelUngs appear generally along either side of 
the backbone or even weU down on the sides, the animal moves 
about as little as possible, and a generally drowsy appearance 
is noticeable. 

Treatment. — Force the larvae out by squeezing the swelhngs 
between the thumb and finger. If the opening in the swelling 
is too small to permit such ejectment, it should be enlarged with 
a sharp knife. In event the larvae can not be forced out they 
should be killed by being punctured with a needle. Afterward 
a drop of turpentine or gasoline may be injected into them. 
Ordinarily, two or three drops of turpentine should be placed 
in the wounds after the larvae have been removed. 

Screw Worms. — These appear 
in open wounds and are espe- 
cially active in rainy weather. 
Infected animals should have the 
affected parts bathed in turpentine, 
gasoline or chloroform. 
Fig. 203.— Reufl's method Throwing Cattle. — When opera- 

of casting. tions to be performed on cattle 

require them to be thrown, gentle 
animals may be tied as shown in Fig. 203, which represents what 
is known as " Reuff's Method of Casting." A rope is tied about 




LIVE STOCK 263 

the animal's neck in such a way that stranghng will not occur and 
two half -hitches are then taken about the body, one imme- 
diately to the rear of the fore legs, the other directly in front of 
the hind legs. The loose end of the rope is then pulled stead- 
ily backward until the animal hes down, after which it may be 
tied as desired. 

Wild or vicious animals may be roped from horseback and 
thro\Mi. Before they have time to regain their feet they should 
be secured by tying all fom- feet together. 

3. SHEEP 

On some of the National Forests, particularly in the South- 
west, the field man is required to spend a large portion of his 
time seeing that the grazing regulations with reference to sheep 
are properly enforced. These include a numuer of regulations 
having to do with the physical condition of such animals, and the 
forest officer must be able to discern disease when it appears and 
know what action must be taken to combat it. Otherwdse 
serious losses may occur, the range may be contaminated, and 
unpleasant comphcations may arise. 

Mange (Scabies) .^Caws^s. — Sheep mange is cause by a para- 
site, the most common of which is Psoroptes communis, var. ovis, 
and which by its action in the skin causes premature or improper 
sheddiug of the wool. 

Symptoms. — Loss of wool before or after the regular shedding 
season, patchy or ragged wool, and scaley skin. 

Treatment. — The disease may be prevented by dipping. Two 
compounds which are widely used in the Southwest are: (1) The 
arsenic dip; (2) The sulphur dip. The first is composed of a 
jjound each of soda ash and arsenic dissolved in forty gaUons 
of water. . The sljeep are held in this till it reaches the skin and 
are then released. They should not be allow^ed to return to the 
range until dripping stops or the range may be poisoned. 

The sulphur dip consists of eight pounds of sulphur, five 
pounds of unslaked lime, one pound of tobacco leaves and fifty 
gallons of water. Sheep should be dipped when the mixture has 
been heated to a temperature of about 100° F. and should be 
held in it for a period of two minutes. 

The chief ingredient in a third dip is coal-tar. This dip, of 
which there are any number of rehable makes on the market 
and which, if desired, can be made by the individual, although 



264 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

it is generally more economical to purchase already compounded, 
is rapidly displacing the other dips formerly used for the cor- 
rection of verminous conditions in sheep and other animals. 
This is probably due to several reasons, not the least of which 
are that it is economical, non-poisonous, and does not affect 
the quahty of the wool or hide in other than a highly beneficial 
way. Such dips are used generally throughout the middle West 
and Northwest, as well as all over Canada and South America, 
and now exceed all others in quantity used. The United States 
Department of Agriculture authorizes them for use and sets 
the standard of dilution. 

Foot and Mouth Disease. — This disease is of the same nature 
as that which occurs in cattle and all cloven-hoofed, herbivorous 
animals and should receive the same treatment in all cases. 
(See page 260.) 

Foot Rot. — Causes. — This may result either from the use of 
contaminated range or from ranging sheep on ground that is 
too soft to keep the natural gi'owth of the hoof cut away. 

Symptoms. — Sore, lacerated, ragged and torn hoofs. Soreness 
and festering are especially prominent between the claws. 

Treatment. — Cut away all affected parts of the hoof; then 
dress the hoof with a mixture of two tablespoonfuls of corrosive 
subHmate in a pint of turpentine. Animals so treated should be 
kept from the range at least a month after treatment. The 
disease is contagious. 

Lung Worms. — These are small, thread-like worms {Strongylus 
filaria), from ^-inch to 1 or 2 inches long, and are found in the 
lungs of young sheep that have been ranged too long on the 
same areas. 

Symptoms. — Affected animals lose flesh rapidly and finally 
become too weak to walk. 

Treatinent. — Drench with a tea made of three parts water to one 
part flaxseed, to which a tablespoonf ul of gasoline has been added. 
Keep the animals from infected range and change range fre- 
quently. To drench a sheep set the animal on its haunches and 
hold it in this position by pressure of the knees against either 
side. So long as its feet are not allowed to touch the ground 
it will struggle but little, if any. 

Stomach Worms. — These infest the fourth stomach and cer- 
tain portions of the intestines. There are two kinds, viz.: 
tape-worms {Tcenia plicata) and hair-worms (Tricocephalus) . 



LIVE STOCK 265 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are the same as those caused by 
lung worms, but are accompanied by diarrhea. The last-named 
symptom distinguishes the presence of stomach worms from that 
of lung worms. 

Treatment. — The same as for lung worms. 

Holding Sheep. — A peculiar characteristic of sheep is their 
habit of remaining quiet as long as theh feet are not allowed 
to touch the ground. The easiest method of holding them while 
medicine is to be administered, therefore, is to set them squarely 
on their rump and then hold them in this position by pressing 
the knees against either side. 

4. HOGS 

Except on the National Forests of the South and Southeast 
the average field man has Httle to do with the subject of range 
hogs, but if he is to be stationed in either of these localities he 
should know something of the diseases to which hogs are subject. 

Cholera.— Caitses. — Cholera may be the result of unsanitary 
surroundings or it may appear in the nature of an epidemic or 
contagion. It may also be carried by bird or animal scavengers. 
The germ is Bacillus cholerce suis. 

Symptoms. — Intermittent fever and shivering, loss of appetite, 
accelerated respiration, general depression, and watery eyes filled 
with pus. Blue or bluish-red spots appear on the skin and 
great weakness is apparent. The disease is fatal in direct pro- 
portion to the susceptibiMty of the animal infected and to the 
virulence of the attack. 

Treatment. — So far as known there has not yet been a rehable 
cure discovered, although inoculation has proven of distinct value. 
Many so-caUed cures may prove effective under extremely favor- 
able conditions, but none of them is infalhble. The best treat- 
ment is of a preventive nature, such as providing sanitary sur- 
roundings, frequent disinfection of quarters, strict isolation of 
infected animals, and careful disposal of carcasses by bm-ning. 
(See Glanders-Farcy, page 243.) 

Mange. — Causes. — Hog mange is caused by a parasite of the 
Sarcoptes group. • The parasite is of sufficient size to be discern- 
ible with the naked eye and has the appearance of a minute 
white speck. The disease flourishes in unsanitary surroundings. 

Symptoms. — The animal scratches itself frequently and rubs 



266 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

against the sides of the pen or against trees and posts; scabs and 
bare white spots appear on the skin, and a generally unhealthy 
appearance of the skin is noticeable. 

Treatment. — Use a stiff brush and scrub infected animals 
thoroughly with a wash made of carbolic acid diluted with 
water, 1 to 50 parts. A weak solution of water and tobacco 
leaves is also good, but if mad. too s'trong may poison an animal. 
A good coal-tar dip or disinfectant, such as is used for sheep 
scab, is just as effective as either of these remedies and is much 
safer. 

Thumps. — Causes. — Overfeeding and lack of exercise. 

Symptoms. — The disease occurs chiefly among suckling pigs 
and is indicated by violent heart action, the heart striking the 
walls of the chest with sufficient force to cause the body to 
sway backward and forward. The action is plainly audible, 
hence the term " thumps." 

Treatment. — Regulate the feed by removing the pigs from the 
sow for three-hour periods twice a day. Allow plenty of exercise. 

ADMINISTERING MEDICINES 

Drenches. — These are Uquid medicines and are administered 
by being poured into an animal's mouth from a long-necked 
bottle or similar receptacle. They should never be given through 
the nose; such procedure not only causes strangulation in many 
instances, but also results in more or less loss of the drench, while 
that portion that is utiHzed decreases in volume and strength as 
it passes over the extra membranes. Moreover, it may injure 
these membranes and permanently impair their usefulness. 

Pills or Balls. — These are administered when powdered medi- 
cines are to be used. They should not exceed 1 inch in diameter 
nor 2 inches in length. They are placed far back on the tongue, 
after this has been drawn out as far as practicable, and are taken 
into the throat when the tongue is released. They should not 
be administered to cattle, as the digestive organs of these animals 
are so constructed that piUs may pass into the paunch and re- 
main there for some time, during which they are without effect ; 
there is also a possibility of their being regurgitated with the 
cud and chewed over by the animal. 

They should not be given dry, but should be soft and moist ; 
otherwise they may stick in the throat until sufficient moisture 



LIVE STOCK 267 

is absorbed from this passage to allow their progress into the 
stomach. 

Drenching Horses. — Place an open loop of rope about the 
upper jaw to the rear of the tusks; then raise the head above 
a level with the neck by puUing downward on the rope after 
the other end has been passed over a tree limb or a beam; this 
permits introduction of the bottle-neck into the mouth in such 
a way that a minimum of medicine is spilled. 

The bottle should be tipped upward until the contents run 
into the animal's mouth in a moderately full stream, but no 
attempt should be made to administer the entire drench at one 
operation; after a portion has been given, the animal should be 
allowed time to swallow before more is released. Horses fre- 
quently refuse to swallow, but this action may be overcome by 
tickling the roof of the mouth with the bottle. The practice 
of pinching, kneading, or squeezing the throat in order to induce 
swallo\sdng is to be avoided, although it may be rubbed gently 
and no ill effects will follow. 

The bottle-neck is thrust into the mouth between the bars- 
of the jaws, and care must be taken not to place it so far back 
that the animal may crush it between the molars. 

If the animal is inchned to be vicious and objects to being 
drenched, it may be tied as shown in Fig. 208. 

Drenching Cattle. — This can be done if the services of two men 
are available; one holds the animal by the ears, horns, or nose, 
or ties it, while the other administers the drench. If one man 
must work alone he should tie the animal's head up higher than 
the throat. No trouble need be anticipated in a refusal to 
swallow; the throat and mouth are so constructed that the 
drench can not be retained in them as it may by a horse. 

Drenching with a Syringe. — The tube of the instrument is 
placed well back in the mouth and the charge is released grad- 
ually, allowdng the animal plenty of time to swallow. The charge 
should not be of such a nature that it wiU absorb a portion of 
the material of which the sjTinge is made. 

SUBJUGATING HORSES 

Throwing. — It not infrequently happens that a field man, 
purchasing a horse on short notice and without careful inspect- 
ing, secures an animal that has not been properly trained, or 



268 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

one that has been allowed to develop habits not desirable in 
a saddle animal. Many of these habits may be broken up by 
persistent treatment, although it is not an uncommon thing to 
find some animals that are too stupid to learn. ^ 

The plan of throwing an animal three or four times daily for 
a period of from three to six days, tying it down securely, and 
allowing it to remain in that condition for from fifteen minutes 
to an hour, usually results in the complete subjugation of a 
stubborn or viciously inchned animal. While it is thus rendered 
unable to resent any operations that may be performed on or 
about it, its feet, ears, head, or other parts of its body may be 
handled until it learns that it must submit peaceably to such 
treatment 

A very effective means of throwing is to use a casting rig 
similar to that illustrated in Fig. 208, except that instead of 
applying it to one hind foot only both hind feet are secured. 
Moreover, instead of merely raising one foot from the ground 
both are drawn up close to the body and thus rendered useless 
as means of offense or defense. As the pastern joints are forced 
upward they bend more sharply and there is little danger of the 
rig slipping as long as it is kept tight; it is advisable, however, 
to take an extra turn of the rope about them when they are to 
be tied firmly against the animal's body. One man working 
alone secures one foot at a time, tying it up securely by fasten- 
ing the loose end of the rope into the rope collar about the ani- 
mal's neck. When one foot has been secured in this manner 
the other is then secured in a similar manner. If two men are 
to work together, both hind feet may be drawn- forward at the 
same time and then fastened after the animal is down. 

If the animal is a kicker and refuses to have the loops placed 
about the pasterns by hand, they should be laid on the ground 
and the animal backed into them; or a stick may be used in 
placing them as desired. 

When the hind feet have been brought up and made fast the 
fore feet are then tied back to them, care being taken in this 
operation to use a knot that may be released by a pull at the 
loose end of the rope. It is also necessary to have the rig secured 



1 Occasionally animals purchased by the United States army prove too 
stupid to recognize certain bugle caUs or other commands ; such aniinals 
are immediately condemned and disposed of by sale or otherwise. 



LIVE STOCK 269 

in such a way that the animal can not effect its release before 
the operator is ready for it to do so. If an unusually severe 
lesson is deemed necessary the neck may be forced back along 
the side and the head securely tied to the feet. 

IMules being thrown in this way usually fall to their knees 
first and retain their footing -^dth the hind feet. This may be 
overcome by pushing them sidewise at the rear. 

Whirling. — This is a very effective method of outwitting an 
animal that refuses to stand still long enough to be saddled or 
harnessed. The horseman grasps the halter rope in his left 
hand and the animal's tail in his right, then forces the anim.al 
to travel swiftly in a small circle about him until it becomes 
dizzy. It may then be saddled or harnessed before it regains its 
complete equihbrium. 

Head-and-Tailing. — This is similar to whirling, except that the 
head is drawTi back alongside the body and tied to the tail with 
the halter rope. The animal is then forced to tra\i;l in a circle, 
and as a result of dizziness soon casts itself. Care must be 
taken to fasten the halter rope in such a way that it may be 
released from the tail without difficulty. 

Prominent Bad Habits. — Biting. — Little can be done to break 
a confirmed biter of the habit, but it may be temporarily checked 
by the use of a stiff bit fitted with a very short curb-strap. When 
the animal attempts to bite, the reins are drawn in quickly and 
the animal's mouth suffers so severely that temporary relief may 
be secured. A specially constructed bit, bearing upright prongs 
on the bar, is manufactured for this purpose; the prongs pre- 
vent the animal from closing its teeth together. 

Kicking. — This is an especiaUy dangerous habit and requires 
severe treatment. A very effective method is to pass a rope 
from a severe curb-bit to a rear pastern, leaving it short enough 
to allow the animal to inflict its own punishment each time it 
kicks. Proximity to the animal's heels may be avoided by using 
a long rope, lajdng a loop on the ground, backing the animal 
into it, and then drawing the rope up to the required length. 

Stall Kicking. — This habit may be broken b}' the use of a 
pole hung behind the animal at a point about 214 feet above 
the ground and close enough to permit it to s^dng against the 
animal each time it is kicked away. Its action soon discourages 
the kicker. 

Striking. — This is a difficult habit to break, and in aggravated 



270 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

cases such animals should be kept hobbled. Another plan is 
to rap the cannon-bones sharply with a stiff stick or whip each 
time the animal strikes. 

Stall Pawing. — A 2-foot length of light chain buckled to the 
pastern of the leg most used generally breaks this habit; if it 
fails the chain may be buckled to the cannon-bone. 

Crihhing. — This refers to an animal's action in setting the 
teeth into and sucking at a post, manger, tree, or similar object, 
and is frequently designated as " stump sucking." There is no 
means of permanently breaking the habit, but temporary rehef 
may be obtained by sprinkUng pepper or other distasteful ma- 
terial over the object at which the animal sucks. 

Setting Back. — This refers to an animal's action in pulling 
back on the rope with which it is tied, and is a disagreeable 
habit that should not be tolerated. It may be broken, after 
repeated lessons, by tjdng the animal with a rope it can not 
break. Such a rope should be noosed about the neck and the 
animal should be allowed to choke itself down at each attempt 
to escape, being released just before insensibility ensues. 

Another method is to loop a rope under its tail, pass the 
rope up through the chin ring of the halter or the bozal of the 
hackamore, tie it firmly to a substantial post, and then leave 
the animal where it may " set back." To prevent the rope 
from slipping down from around the root of the tail, it may be 
doubled, brought upward and along the back, twisted several 
times, and one end then run through the hackamore from either 
side of the neck. 

A variation of this method is to use, in connection with the 
strong tail rope, a weaker halter rope that may be broken with 
moderate effort. Both ropes are then tied to the post, the 
halter rope being sHghtly shorter than the other. At the moment 
the halter rope breaks, or is cut, the animal's whole weight is 
thrown against the loop under the tail. Four or five lessons 
should prove sufficient. 

Balking. — This may be the result of continued overloading, 
improper training, ill-fitting harness, shoulder sores, or pure 
stubbornness, although the last is seldom responsible. The habit 
can not be permanently broken, and an animal addicted to it 
should be disposed of at the first opportunity. It is peculiar 
to draft animals, and may, but seldom does, appear in saddle 
animals. 



LIVE STOCK 



271 



The common practice of pouring sand, fine gravel, or v/ater 
into the ears is to be condemned. A better way to gain tem- 
porary rehef is to loop a rope about one fore foot and pull the 
foot forward. As the animal attempts to replace it on the ground 
it will unconsciously step forward, or it may even lunge forward 
very suddenly. In the latter event care must be taken not to 
be trampled upon. A second man is needed to hold the reins 
when this method is being tried. 

Another method is to tie the ear tips together. Still another 
is to back the animal several steps, if this can be done, and then 
urge it forward suddenly. 

The sole object to be attained in the case of a balky animal 
is to divert its attention from its resolve not to move forward, 
but whipping or other ill-treatment seldom proves effective. 
Slight adjustment of the collar or other parts of the harness is 
always advisable. 

Rearing' in Harness. — This habit may be broken by using the 
rig showTi in Fig. 204. "WTien the animal rears the rope is drawTi 
in, forcing its feet upward toward the body, and thus causing 




Fig. 204.— Rearing Rig. 



it to lower the body in an attempt to replace the feet on the 
ground. In aggravated cases both fore legs may be treated in 
a similar manner, the services of a second man, of com-se, being 
necessary in handling either the rope or the reins. 

Bolting. — Another term for this is the common one of " run- 



272 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

ning away." If a harness animal acquires the habit it should 
be forced to continue running until exhausted. To break the 
habit in a saddle animal a 30- or 40-foot- rope is noosed about 
its neck at the time the rider dismounts and the other end is 
tied securely to some stationary object. No attempt should be 
made to stop the animal as it bolts, except to call " whoa " just 
before it reaches the end of the rope. Immediately after it 
hears this command it will be precipitated headlong. This usually 
breaks the habit in about three lessons. 

PURCHASING A SADDLE HORSE 

In accordance with general administrative procedure, the new 
field man reporting for duty is immediately assigned to field 
work. Such a detail involves the purchase of a horse, which a 
regularly appointed field man must furnish himself, and in view 
of the fact that practically all of his field trips must be made 
by horse, the purchaser of a saddle horse should, when possible, 
exercise the greatest dehberation in inspection of the animal he 
jiroposes to buy. It is true of course, that a saddle animal 
which may suit one man may not suit another, but the sug- 
gestions which follow will assist the inexperienced buyer in 
selecting a fairly satisfactory animal for use until such time as 
his own experience may tell him that an animal of other qualities 
will suit his individual likes better. 

The prospective purchaser should always make a personal 
inspection of the animal he is considering, this rule holding good 
in every case unless he can secure advice from some person whom 
he knows to be absolutely reliable. Professional horse dealers, 
and other persons having horses for sale, usually will not or 
else can not give the buyer complete details concerning the 
animal negotiated for. As a result of this the buyer may 
eventually discover characteristics in an animal that were not 
apparent, or were not made known to him, before or at the 
time the purchase was made. 

Age. — Under ordinary circumstances a horse should be in his 
prime at from seven to ten years of age. As a matter of fact, 
however, most work or saddle animals are not given proper 
attention, and as a result may be of little value after they reach 
the age of seven or eight years. At any rate, if the buyer has 
reason to believe that he may want to sell the animal within a 









15 Years 



^ 



12 Years 



20 Years 
The horse's teeth at various ag€ 




20 Years 




Fig. 205. — Jaws of an adult horse. 



274 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

year or so, and wants to secure not less than the purchase price, 
he should not purchase an animal older than eight years unless 
there is every indication that the animal is perfectly sound; 
even then, in view of the fact that there is Uttle demand for 
horses exceeding eight or ten years in age, there is always a 
question of being able to dispose of them on short notice. 

A general rule for determining age by the appearance of the 
teeth follows, but this should not be considered as infallible. 
Quite naturally the condition of the teeth is affected by the 
nature of the feed an animal has been accustomed to; if it 
has been hard, tough, or gritty, then, of course, the teeth will 
be shorter or more worn in appearance than if softer feeds have 
been eaten.. 

The teeth at various ages are illustrated in Fig. 205. 

The colt has six incisors, or front teeth, in both the upper 
and lower jaw, pnd three molars, or grinders, on either side in 
both. The permanent set which replaces these includes twelve 
more molars, three being added to each side of both jaws. The 
horse has four tusks at maturity, but these seldom appear in 
mares, and when they do are poorly developed. Thus the 
temporary teeth number twenty-four, while the permanent set 
includes from thirtj^-six to forty, depending upon whether or 
not the tusks are present. 

The incisors, which are the teeth to be examined in determining 
age, are known, in the order of their appearance from the sides 
of the mouth to the center, as '' corners," " dividers," and " nip- 
pers"; the grinders are examined only in reference to their 
general condition of evenness and soundness. 

One to Three Years. — Nippers appear at the age of from one week 
to ten days, the uppers being cut first and the lowers appearing 
soon afterward; dividers appear at from four to five weeks, and 
are followed in eight or ten months by the corners. The tem- 
porary teeth are gradually pushed up from beneath by the per- 
manent teeth, the process of shedding them beginning at two 
and one-half or three years of age. Permanent upper nippers 
may be visible at three years, but the temporary corners and 
dividers still remain. Usually the permanent teeth are the 
shorter. 

Four Years. — The permanent dividers have appeared and the 
temporary corners still remain but are worn smooth and are 
much smaller than the permanent teeth. 



LIVE STOCK 275 

Five Years. — A full set of permanent teeth is present and the 
animal is said to have a " full mouth." Nippers and dividers 
are worn almost level, but retain the narrow cavities known as 
" cups," which extend lengthwise through the crown. Tusks 
have appeared in the male. 

Six Years. — Corners are well worn and dividers retain their 
cups, but the nippers are either worn level or have very shallow 
cups. 

Seven Years. — Corners have shallow cups, dividers and nip- 
pers have none, and the tusks are well developed. Usually the 
upper corners, being wider than the lower ones, are not worn 
away at the rear but project somewhat below the edge of the 
crown of the lowers. All the incisors are quite white and have 
lost their former yellow tint. 

Eight Years. — Corners are worn level and begin to assume an 
oval crown and dividers and nippers have grown thicker from 
front to rear and have decreased in mdth. All inchne forward 
more and do not fit together so nearly endwise. The " star " 
appears in the crown approximately haK-way between the front 
enamel and that at or near the center of the crown which is 
known as the " cente;r " enamel. 

AHne Years. — The notch found in the corners at seven has 
nearly disappeared, nippers and dividers have crowns quite oval 
in shape, and all are thicker from front to rear. The center 
enamel is nearer that at the rear and the star is quite distinct. 

Ten Years. — Corners are now of little value in determining 
age and nippers and dividers have grown almost round. The 
star is nearer the center of the crown and the center enamel has 
assumed a triangular shape and receded toward the rear of the 
tooth. 

Fifteen Years. — Dividers and nippers are distinctly triangular, 
the center enamel in the upper ones has disappeared, and the 
star has reached the center of the lower ones. All incisors pro- 
trude forward and are very thick from front to rear. 

Twenty Years. — Nippers and dividers are thicker from front 
to rear than from side to side and their crowTis have pulled 
away from each other; corners point inward and the jaw has 
shrunk until it is very narrow; deep notches appear in the 
upper corners as the result of wear against the rear edges of the 
lowers; all protrude forward to a very noticeable extent and 
set wide apart. 



276 HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Size. — A horse weighing from nine hundred to one thousand 
pounds is sufficiently heavy for all ordinary field work. Larger 
ones do not possess the capacity for continued climbing, travel- 
ing over rough country, or subsisting on short rations that 
smaller animals do. They may prove satisfactory for level 
traveling over good roads, but can not be recommended for 
mountain travel. 

Build. — The most efficient type of saddle animal for mountain 
work has a short back, is high at the withers and deep from there 
to the chest; the latter is full and very broad, the legs are mod- 
erately short and are straight and strong with compact joints 
and sound hoofs; the head is wide between the eyes and also 
between the ears and is carried well up, but not high, when travel- 
ing, the nose is slightly Roman, and the eyes are large and clear 
and show very little of the white. 

Color. — Only three colors, with their variations, actually af- 
fect the efficiency of a saddle animal; these are white, what is 
known as "' pinto," and '' buckskin." The first usually indi- 
cates inbreeding, and when this is present the animal, of course, 
suffers from constitutional weakness in one or more forms. This 
color is not to be confused with the cream color of a distinct 
breed of horses noted for their great intelligence. 

Pinto horses, which may also be known as " paint," " speckled," 
" piebald," or "calico," are descendants of the Indian pony, are 
very hardy and strong, but seldom attain great size. 

Buckskin, or " dun " or " claybank," horses with dark stripes 
around the legs above and below the knees and hock joints and 
another extending the entire length of the spinal column, are 
descended from a distinct breed of Spanish ponies noted for 
their great powers of endurance. They are the toughest and 
hardiest hor.ses that can be secured, are intelligent and usually 
docile unless ill-treated, and are seldom vicious. 

Black horses may suffer more from heat than other colors 
may, bays may be the most vicious, and chestnuts may have 
the tenderest skins, but actual experience in the field has failed 
to prove or disprove any of these theories. 

General Disposition. — Many horses resent having their ears 
grasped when the halter or bridle is to be adjusted or removed, 
they object to being slapped on the side or flank, do not hke to 
be rubbed or curried, pull back or kick at the stall or other 
animals when tied, and acquire many unpleasant habits of a 



LIVE STOCK 277 

similar nature. Their examination in this respect should be 
very thorough, and when such tendencies are shown should con- 
stitute a valid reason for rejection of the animal. The common 
idea that such animals should be purchased merely because 
they may be secured for less money is a mistake that should 
never be made; animals having as few faults as possible will 
prove enough of a problem for the beginner in horsemanship. 

Eyes. — A bhnd or partially bhnd horse is practically worth- 
less for saddle use, and should never be secured for such work. 
The defect is often difficult to detect by casual observation of the 
animal's eyes and the examination in this respect can not be 
too thorough. 

A very satisfactory method of doing this is to take the animal 
from the stable into strong sunhght; if the Uds or pupils shi-ink 
the sight is defective or at least weak; the change of Ught should 
not cause any discomfort. 

Another means of determining defective eyesight is to pass 
the hand quickly across an animal's line of vision and close to 
the eyes; when this is done and no apparent notice of it is 
taken by the animal the eyes are wholly or partially sightless. 

A good, strong, sound eye is clear, the ball glistens, has a regu- 
lar contour, and is not spotted or blotched; the white should 
be clear in color ^^dth onlj^ the faintest trace of minute thread- 
like blood-vessels showing beneath the surface. Excessive lach- 
rymal secretions indicate an injured eye and should be carefully 
investigated. A " glass " eye is not necessarily weak, but its 
l^resence always lessens the market value of an animal. In old 
horses the eyeball is distinctly sunken in the socket. 

Pulse. — Normal heart action is approximately as follows: 

Colt, two to four weeks old 70 to 90 beats per minute 

Colt, six to twelve months 45 " 60 

Colt, two to three years 40 " 50 

Mare 35 " 40 

Gelding 33 "38 " 

Stallion 28 " 32 " 

The pulse may be observed by placing the ear against the 
animal's left side just to the rear of the elbow joint. A dull, 
regular, thudding sound indicates a healthy heart; wheezing, 
roaring, rattling, or irregular sounds indicate the opposite. 

Another method of observing the pulse is to place the fingers 



278 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

up under and between the lower jaws immediately behind the 
flat cheek muscles; if the pulse is not located at once the fingers 
should be moved forward or backward or otherwise until the 
right spot has been reached. 

Respiration. — This should be regular and without severe mus- 
cular effort, and in a healthy animal occurs at the approximate 
rate of one breath to every three beats of the heart. Unless 
the respiratory system is deranged the breaths are inaudible 
except at very close range. 

Many animals suffering from improper respiration develop 
symptoms when strenuously exercised that are not apparent 
during inactivity; for that reason it is always well to give them 
ten or fifteen minutes of lively exercise before the purchase is 
made. 

Hearing. — If an animal is spoken to sharply at a time when 
it happens to be looking away from the speaker its observation 
of the sound will be indicated by a sudden twitch of the ears 
or head toward the direction of the sound. If no such action 
results its hearing is probably impaired. 

Legs. — The distance from the body between the fore legs to 
the gTOund should be about the same as that from the withers 



Anterior Eiteneor 

Oblique Extensor 

Anterior Extensor 

to Coffin bone 

Lateral Extensor 




Metacarpal Ligament 
f Perforans Tendon 

Flexor Perforans Tendon 
uspensor; Ligament 




Flexor Perforans 
Tarsal Sheath 



Front leg. Hind leg. 

Fig. 206. — Principal tendons and ligaments on the horse's legs. 



to the body at the same point, the legs should set well apart at 
the breast, be straight and well muscled from the knee upward, 
and the knees should not buckle forward. The hind legs should 
be fairly straight at the hock joints, and the portions above 
these joints should be full and weU muscled. None of the 
joints in any of the legs should buckle in any direction, bear 
any unnatural enlargements, or appear stiff. 

Hoofs. — Sound hoofs have straight, symmetrical walls, broad 
heels, a full frog, and a generally oily appearance. Flaring, 
bell-shaped, cracked, or otherwise disfigiu-ed hoofs are to be 



LIVE STOCK 



270 



avoided. No horse with unsound hoofs will give satisfaction as 
a saddle animal. 

Gaits. — The animal should be ridden at various rates of speed 
for a distance of two or three miles, during which a general test 
of its traveUng capacity may be made. A running walk is a 
very desirable gait; a " pace," in which the animal moves the 
the legs of one side simultaneously, is to be avoided; a slow 
trot is a satisfactory gait provided there is sufficient spring in 



Lumbar Vertebrae 
Sacrum 



Caudal Vertebrae 

Ischium 




Upper Pastern 

Lower Pastern 

Coffin 



ach leg) 
Cannon 
Sesamoii 
I on eact leg) 
iper Pastern Bone 
Lower Pastern Bona 
Navicular Bone 



Fig. 207. — Bones of the horse. 



the joints to reheve the rider of continual jarring; a " short 
lope " or a slow gallop is suitable for level travehng but is almost 
useless in the mountains; and the same is true of the " single 
foot " gait. 

IDENTIFICATION OF STOCK 

Obviously, when cattle or other stock belonging to a number 
of different owners use a common range, there must be some 
means possible whereby each owner may identify his o\\ti prop- 
erty. Consequently a system of identification, based on visible 
marks of OT\Tiership apphed in some manner to an animal's bodj'-, 
has developed automatically until at the present time it has 
reached a stage where the inexperienced person has good reason 
to feel completely be-^nldered as he attempts to decipher some of 



280 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

the characters used. Unfortunately their selection and applica- 
tion are not controlled by any fixed rule except the one statu- 
tory in nature in most States prohibiting different owners in the 
same locality from adopting the same characters of identifi- 
cation. If their cattle are branded alike then the ear marks 
must differ, and vice versa. The subject presents rather a dif- 
ficult problem to elucidate in an intelligent manner, but it is be- 
lieved that careful attention to the following remarks will pro- 
vide the inexperienced field man with at least a fairly accurate 
working knowledge of the different methods used and of the 
designations and other terms apphcable to each: 

Methods Used. — The methods most widely used are applied, 
in the order of their prominence, in the forms of: (1) Brands; 
(2) Ear Marks; (3) Ear Buttons; (4) Ear Loops; (5) Ear Tags; 
and (6) Dewlaps, which will be discussed in this order. 

I. Brands. — These may be divided into three general classes, 
viz.: (1) Fire Brands; (2) Inscribed Brands; and (3) Paint 
Brands. The first are made by burning characters on an ani- 
mal's hide, hoofs, or horns; the second are cut or inscribed in 
the horns or hoofs; and the third are made by smearing tar 
or paint on an animal, and are sometimes designated as " tar " 
brands. 

Fire Brands. — These are applied by means of a heated iron. 
When only a few animals are to be branded they are either cast 
or tied as sho\\Ti in Fig. 208. In the latter case they are tied 
with what is known as a " branding rig." This consists of a 
bowline on a bight (see page 327), fastened about the neck, the 
loose end of the rope being passed about the rear pastern, on 
the side opposite that to which the brand is to be appKed, and 
the corresponding foot is raised from the ground. This prevents 
the animal from rearing, kicking, or running, and unless it is 
very active or vicious will also prevent it from striking. 

If a large number of animals are to be branded, they may be 
driven into a branding " chute," which is fitted with bars to 
prevent them from passing forward or backing out before the 
brand is applied. 

The irons used in fire branding are known as: (1) Stamp 
Irons; (2) Bar Irons; and (3) Running Irons. 

(1) Stamp Irons. — These are usually about 20 inches long by 
3^-inch in diameter. The character, or combination of characters, 
to be used as a brand, are of iron and are welded to one end of 



LIVE STOCK 



281 



the handle and at right angles to it. This end of the iron is 
heated and the character is then pressed against the animal's 
skin and held there as long as the experience of the operator 
dictates. If held against the skin too long, a blurred or indis- 
tinct brand, known as a "bone" brand, mil be the result; if 




Fig. 208. — Branding Rig. 



removed too quickly, no permanent, or at least no visible, scar 
will be left, and the animal is " hair " branded. The term 
"hair brand" is also apphed to a character clipped in an animal's 
wool or hair. 

A proper knowledge of the length of time required to leave 
a permanently visible scar can be obtained only through prac- 
tice. The factors of heat, variety of u'on used, and pressure ap- 
pUed to the iron, all have direct influences on the satisfactory 
application of the iron. 

(2) Bar Irons. — These differ from stamp irons in that they have 
only a bar welded to the lower end of the handle and at right 
angles to it. Ordinarily this bar is about j>4-inch thickf 2 or 
3 inches long, and 1 or 2 inches ^dde. In using such an iron 
the operator makes only a portion of the desired character at 
a time, using either the long or short edge or one corner of the 
bar. Its use is confined chiefly to open range work, where it 



282 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

can be carried on the saddle with less inconvenience than a 
stamp iron. By reason of the longer time required in applying 
a brand with it, it is not as convenient in this respect as a stamp 
U'on. 

3. Running Irons. — These are either straight or hooked iron 
bars which, when heated, are used in tracing characters on an 
animal's skin. Hooked irons are especially convenient because, 
turned edgewise, the hook may be used in tracing straight Hues 
and turned sidewise or flat may be used in burning curves. 

Another form of running iron is a plain iron ring, usually 
about 2)^ or 3 inches in diameter, and made of Y^- or 3^-incli 
iron. This is heated and then appUed by means of short sticks, 
secured on the open range, and used tong fashion. The chief 
advantage of this iron is the convenience with which it may be 
carried. 

Many stockmen prefer copper rings, this preference being due 
to the fact that such rings heat more quickly and uniformly 
than common iron rings. 

Some State legislatures have passed laws prohibiting the use 
of running irons, the reason for such action no doubt being the 
slowness with which brands are appUed by their use. 

Location of Fire Brands. — There is no fixed rule governing the 
location of fire brands, but there are general customs of apply- 
ing them to specified parts of different animals. For example: 
Horses and mules are usuaUy branded on the shoulder or on the 
lower portion of the hip as shown in Fig. 209; cattle are branded 
on the shoulder, hip, side, or back, frequently on the neck, and 
occasionally on the forehead. Burros, in addition to being 
branded the same as horses and mules, are quite frequently 
branded on the neck. Fire brands on sheep or goats are applied 
to the side of the nose, this location for the brand being used 
because fire brands on other parts of the body would be com- 
pletely hidden by the wool. Hogs are seldom branded^ but are 
invariably ear-marked. 

Cancelation of Fire Brands. — When ownership of stock is 



1 In response to an inquiry as to whether a brand woTild discolor the 
meat of a hog through to the bone, in accordance with a very common 
idea, the packing firm of Armoiir & Company repUed that possibly, 
if the iron were too hot, the brand might show to a depth of M-inch 
below the skin. Swift & Company replied that they had had no 
experience with branded hogs. 



LIVE STOCK 



283 



transferred from one person to another it is customary to cancel 
the former owner's brand and thus remove his visible title to 
the property. 




Shoulder brand. 



Thigh brand. 




Hip brand. 



Dewlap 





Rib brand. 



Neck brand. 



Fig. 209. 



When this has been done the new owner then applies his own 
brand to the animal 



284 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Cancelation of a brand may be effected in either of two 
ways, viz.: (1) Barring out; (2) Venting. 

(1) Barring Out. — This consists merely in superimposing a bar, 
slash, or rail across the former owner's brand as shown in Fig. 
210, where the brand N has been barred out with a slash and 
the brand C with a rail. The brand K is canceled with a bar. 
This method of cancelation is used on both horses and cattle. 

(2) Venting. — Cancelation by venting is commonly used on 
cattle and is illustrated in Fig. 211. It consists merely in ap- 
plying a facsimile of a brand to the shoulder corresponding to 




Fig. 210. 



-Jaw brand. Also cancelation of shoulder brand by rail 
and of thigh brand by bar. 



the side carrying the original brand. Thus a brand on any 
part of the left side is vented by an appUcation of its facsimile 
to the left shoulder, while brands on the right side are vented 
on the right shoulder. Horses are seldom vented. 




Fig. 211. — Cancelation by vent. 

Inscribed Brands — These are cut in the hoofs or horns by 
means of an instrument known as a " scribe " or they may be 



LIVE STOCK 285 

burned in with a fine running or stamp iron. Their use is con- 
fined chiefly to the horns of sheep and goats, to the horns of 
exhibition or graded cattle kept in pastures and to the hoofs of 
army horses and mules. ^ 

They are never appHed to the hoofs of range horses. Nat- 
ural growth of the hoofs necessitates reapplication of the brands 
about every four months. 

Paint Brands. — These are made by smearing tar or paint on 
an animal's hair or wool and may be known in some localities 
as " hair " brands, although this term is usually apphed to tem- 
porary brands clipped in the hair or wool. They may be smeared 
on with a straight stick or stamped on by means of a stamp 
shown in Fig. 213. 

Characters Used as Brands. — These include: (1) All the con- 
ventional letters and figures; (2) Other conventional characters; 
(3) Arbitrary symbols; and (4) Combinations of the preceding 



1 A. W. 1083: "Public animals shall, upon the day received, be 
branded with the letters US on the left fore shoulder. (Sub ^.) Horses 
assigned to organizations will also be branded on the hoof of one fore 
foot 13^ inches below tHe coronet, with the designation of the company. 
Branding irons of tmiform size and design will be supphed by the 
Quartermaster's Department. Letters and numbers of hoof brands 
on the same hne to be three-fourths of an inch high, the letter to pre- 
cede the nimiber, and blocked so as to penetrate the hoof one-sixteenth 
of an inch. For example, the hoof brands on horses assigned to Band, 
Ninth Cavalry, would be CB9; to Troop A, Fifth Cavalry, would be 
A5; to the Band, Second Regiment, Field Artiller5^ would be BA4; 
to Company A, BattaMon of Engineers, would be BE A." 

Excerpt, A. W. 922: "... Condemned animals will be branded 
IC on the neck imder the mane. . ." (Sub ^.) 

A. W. 1084: "Any alteration in the length or shape of the tails, 
manes, or forelocks of public horses by docking, banging or chpping, is 
prohibited, and only such reasonable trimming and plucking as may 
be necessary to prevent shagginess of appearance is permitted." 

(Sub. 1.) In response to an inquiry as to whether the term left 
"fore" shoulder has any special significance or whether it is merely 
redundant the War Department through the Quartermaster- General's 
office repUed: "Animals purchased for the army are branded on the 
left fore shoulder on the flat place over the true arm as shown in in- 
closed diagram." This diagram is reproduced herewith. However, 
the term is redundant. A horse has no "rear" shoulder, and its hip 
is never referred to as its "rear" hip. 

(Sub. -.) The letters IC are the initials of " Inspected; Condemned," 
and indicate that after inspection the animal has for some reason been 
found unfit for army use and has accordingly been condemned. 



286 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

three. It should be remembered that the characters used as a 
brand do not necessarily represent an owner's initials, the age 
of the animal, its number in a herd, or any other specific fact 





Fig. 212. — Army brand.' 



Fig. 213. 



except an indication of title as this is recorded with the proper 
authorities. 

Conventional Letters and Figures. — These are shown in their 
various positions in Fig. 214, each position being explained' in 



Convenfcioual Lot 


ters a 


Hid Figur,e 


5 




1 

as m 


% 

> 


3 
> 

a 


a 

3 




be 
a 


a 

1 


2- 


1 


4 


JJ 


ri 


^ 


r— 


"LT 


^ 


[\ 


^ 


K 


•A 


K 


A 


>v 


K 


^ 


H 


X 





















Fig. 214. 

accordance with its theoretical reading. But, following a local 
custom, the flying K may be read as 7K; the walking K may 



1 Supplied by Quartermaster-General's offlce, 

U. S. A. 



War Department, 



LIVE STOCK 



287 



Other Conventional 
Characters 



Arbitrary Symbols 





Figure 1 


— 


Bar 


/ 


Slash 


\ 


Rati 


A 


Rafter 


A 


Triangle 


O 


Diamond 


1 


Staple 




Square 


r^ 


Half Circle 


o 


Circle 


f^ 


Half Moon 


i^ 


.Star 



Y 


Spur 


2 


Winecup 


n 


Hat 


M 


Stirrup 




W 


Beanpofc 




hy 


Rockingchair 


-^ 


Clawhammer 


rV 


Oil can 


. 3 


Bud 


VK 


Bit- 


± 


Bush 


<S> 


Fan 


^ 


Saddle 


\:f 


Head 


?K 


Bowknot 


<^ 


Clover leaf 


Y\ 


Coffee pot 


P 


Thunderbolt 


>X 


Double cross 


^ 


Frying pan 



Fig. 215. 

be kno\\'n as LKL con- 
nected; and the crooked K 
may be read as Half-circle 
C connected or as YC con- 
nected. The flying 4 may 
be known as 74F connected, 
and the walking 4 as VL or 
4L .connected. In some 
localities a "leaning " char- 
acter is kno^vTi as " flying " ; 
and " walking," " square," 
and " crooked " characters 
may not be designated as 
such. 

Other Conventional Characters. — These are iUustrated and 
explained in Fig. 215. No distinction may be made in some 



Fig. 216. 



288 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

localities between a " bar " and a " figure 1," or between " rails " 
and " slashes." A " square " may be known as a " box," and 
a haK-circle as a "swipe"; otherwise the classifications here 
given are common to most parts of the country. 

Arbitrary Symbols. — These are shown and classified in Fig. 
216. The classifications given are common to all locahties and 
the characters will be found widely used. 

Combinations. — Combination brands may include any of the 
letters, figures or other characters heretofore referred to, and a 
few of the more common ones are shown in Fig. 217. They 
may appear in a group at one place on an animal's body or they 
may appear singly or in separate groups at different places. The 
brand known as a " breeching " consists of a bar across the 
rear side of both hams above the hocks. A " halter " is a rail 
applied on the side of the nose. A " hip strap " is a bar run 
across the back or hips and usually connects a combination brand 
applied to both sides of the animal. 

Reading Brands. — Theoretically, brands are read from left' to 
right and downward, but this rule is often disregarded when 
other methods of reading prove more convenient, such disre- 
gard being especially characteristic of stock owners who graze 
their stock on a common range. In such cases each owner 
is famiUar with all the brands in his locality and his description 
of a brand, while it may be perfectly intelligible to his fellow 
stockmen, may mean little or nothing to the person not familiar 
with the brand. 

Local designations of the same character may vary and it is 
not advisable to contend that a character is any other than that 
recognized locally. What one stockman may call a slash an- 
other may know as a rail, there being no hard and fast rules 
of designation. 

If an animal carries a number of uncanceled brands or a com- 
bination brand the reading is from front to rear. Taking, for 
example, the fourth brand from the top in Fig, 217: If the A 
appears on the jaw, the bar on the ribs or back and the Y on 
the hip or thigh, the brand is read theoretically as " A-Bar-Y, 
jaw to ribs (or back) to hip (or thigh)," but in most instances 
is shortened simply to " A-Bar-Y." 

Changing Brands. — This is a form of thievery which, although 
it was widely practiced on the western ranges in the early days 
of the cattle industry, is now punishable by such severe penal- 



Combination Brands 



-02 


Bar Two 
Bar Circle Two 


^B 


Seven Slash B 


J^ 


J P Combined 


-^ 


A Bar Y 


^/^ 


Reversed 4 Slash Lazy L 


^ 


Half Circle D 


^ 


Rafter Triangle Bar 


V7 


Vr Two Bars 


G 


Stirrup Dot Bar 


'^ 


Flying- M Diamond 


Sb 


Fiftj'-six Connected 


GD 


G Square 
G Box 


1/2 


One-half 

One Slash Two 


1 — 1 


Lazy 3 Bar H 


^K 


M A Connected 


V\ 


Bit Bar 


^ 


Bowknot 
Bowknot Circle 


® 


ox 

Circle X 


-n 


Square B F Connected 


p 


B L Combined 



Fig. 217 



200 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

ties that few cases occur. The two principal methods of chang- 
ing brands are known as "running" and " sleepering." 

Running. — To run a brand the operator merely adds to or 
changes it or else superimposes another upon it. Thus P may 
be run into R by adding a rail to the P, or it may be changed 
to B by adding a quarter circle to the P. The brand US may 
easily be run into 08, and no difficulty whatever would be 
experienced in running FI into ET, EL, or EH. A more diffi- 
cult feat of running a brand is to run X I T into Star Cross but 
it has been done thus^: 




^ 



Such brands as the Flying Y J Bar and the V Dart can 
hardly be run without great danger of detection. 

Sleepering. — This operation consists merely of burning part of 
a brand so lightly that no permanently visible scar is left, thereby 
making it possible to retrace and add to the brand later without 
arousing suspicion. For instance: Assuming that Jones runs the 
Diamond iron and Smith the W iron, Jones finds one of Smith's 
calves on the range, brands it with a W, and keeps it separated 
from its mother until it is weaned. However, he burns the W in 
very Hghtly though severely enough not to arouse suspicion except 
upon the very closest examination, and even if Smith or one 
of his men happens to discover the calf he naturally assumes 
that one of the other men employed by Smith branded it, and 
that the brand is therefore genuine. But as soon as a new 
gro-^i^h of hair covers the burn, usually in less than two months, 
Jones rebrands the caK with his Diamond, running the lower 
half of the Diamond over one half of the W, and thereby obHt- 
erating the last trace of the letter. Consequently, by reason of 
the apparently fresh brand appearing on a calf unaccompanied 
by one of Smith's cows, neither Smith nor his men will suspect 
Jones of sleepering if they happen to observe the calf. This 
method of thievery is easily detected if the State law requires 
ear-marks with brands. Obviously, in such a case a calf branded 
in Jones's iron but ear-marked with Smith's mark would excite 
suspicion. Suspicion would also attach to a branded but un- 

^*It is said that running this brand in such a manner cost a Texas 
cattle company more than $20,000.00 in loss by theft. 



LIVE STOCK 201 

marked caK or to a calf bearing ear-marks which had evidently 
been " worked over." 

2. Ear-marks. — As their name indicates, these are certain 
marks cut in the ears of animals and, hke brands, they are used 
as a means of identification. Hog-raisers in the South rely 
almost wholly upon them for this purpose, while cattle in those 
sections are seldom branded but are invariably ear-marked. 
In the West, however, brands are usually accompanied by ear- 
marks, such a combination facihtating identification when one 
or the other may closely resemble that of some other owner. 

Ear-marks may be appKed to all classes of stock but are sel- 
dom used on horses or mules. They are, however, frequently 
applied to burros. 

Classifications. — For greater convenience in explaining them 
here, ear-marks wall be divided into fourteen general classes, viz., 
(1) Crops; (2) Half-crops; (3) Grubs; (4) SpKts; (5) SwaUow- 
forks; (6) Staples; (7) Half -moons; (8) Bits; (9) Scallops; 
(10) Slopes; (11) Hacks; (12) Shts; (13) Figure 7's; and 
(14) Holes. These may be further classified as " over " and 
" under " haK-crops, staples, bits, scallops, slopes, hacks, and 
figure 7's, the term "over" applying to those cut in the upper 
edge of the ear, " under " referring to those cut in the under 
edge. Splits, swallow-forks, staples, half-moons, bits, scallops, 
slopes, hacks, and figure 7'e may be out through the interior 




Fig. 218. — Ear punch and dies. 

parts of the ear, but not out through the edge, and are then 
classified with the prefix " inner." SUts and holes are always 
cut within the ear-edges. They may be made with a common 
pocket-knife, or with punch and dies like those illustrated in 
Fig. 218. 

Reading Ear-marks. — Theoretically these are read by start- 
ing at the mark nearest the head on the upper edge of the light 
ear and following around the ear downward and back to the 



292 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

head, reading each mark as it is reached. Marks in the left 
ear are then read in a similar manner. 

The marks shown in Fig. 219 are assumed as being observed 
from the front. Thus the right ear is at the reader's left and 
the left ear at his right. 

Since ear-marks, like brands, are subject to designations 
fixed by local custom, the foregoing classifications must be 
modified accordingly. Local methods of applying marks may 
be responsible for a similarity in the shape of bits, staples, and 
half -scallops; swallow forks, end staples and half -moons; 
figure 7's, half-crops and bits; and crops and half-grubs. Little 
or no distinction is made in the West between bits, staples, and 
half-scallops, all of which may be known as bits. Hacks, slits, 
and splits may all be known as splits, while half-moons and end 
staples may be classified as swallow forks in some sections and 
bits in others.^ 

The ones shown constitute the varieties of marks most widely 
used. There are several others possible, but they have not been 
found satisfactorj'-, principally because stock bearing them are 
liable to tear their ears on brush or barbed-wire fences or have 
them torn off by dogs and thus partially or wholly obliterate 
the marks. Among the more unsatisfactory marks may be 
mentioned the " swipe," starting near the center of the ear, 
describing a half-circle and ending near the outer edge of the 
ear; the "X," a cross cut through the ear; the " paddle," a 
slit terminating in a hole; the " box," a removal of the greater 
portion of the interior of the ear leaving only a narrow strip 
around the edge; and the " jingle bob," wliich is made by 
cutting the ear in such a way that a large portion of it droops 
or hangs down beside the animal's jaw. 

It will be seen at once that there is practically no limit to the 
number of marks possible and that the proper reading of certain 
combination marks may be attended with more or less difficulty. 
This is especially true in reading marks in ears that have been 
cut or remarked in such a manner that they lop down.^ 

1 The readings given here are in accordance with general usage rather 
than theoretical rules. 

2 Examination of a cow's ear will show that two large cords run 
lengthwise through its center. If a split is made beneath the lower 
cord the portion of the ear under the split will drop tiU the mark re- 
sembles a wide swallow fork rather than a split . Unless the swallow 
fork effect is desired the spUt should be cut between the cords. 



LIVE STOCK 



293 



Right Ear. 



Left Ear. 



Half-grub. 

It will be observed that 
the half-grub removes 
half of the ear. 



<IX3> 



Crop , or smoo th crop , an d 
inner over half-scallop. 
The smooth crop re- 
moves approximately 
one-fourth of the ear. 



Grub. 

The grub removes the 

entire ear and is a mark 

as imnecessary as it is 

imsightly and injurious . 

The passage to the inner ear frequently grows shut as the wound heals. 



OtO 



Split. 

SpUts terminate at the 
end rather than at the 
edges of the ears. 



Over slope. 

If both an over slope 
and an xmder slope are 
cut in the same ear the 
ear is said to be "point- 
ed" or "sharpened." 



Under slope. 



Swallow fork. 
S waUow forks terminate 
at the edge of the ear 
tip. They may also be 
designated as "bits." 



=C$3> 



Over bit. 

Bits terminate at the 
ear edge. They are 
usually smaller than 
swallow forks. 



Inner slope and under 
figure 7. 

Inner slopes are seldom 
used, as they are very 
unsatisfactory in brush. 



Under bit. 
/'^^Z>~-|-^'' ^ Figure 7's may also be 



known as "bits. 



Over hack. 

Hacks terminate at the 

edge of the ear. 



eji> 



Over figure 7 and under 
hack. 



Over half-scallop and 
inner under bit. 
Scallops and half- 
scallops are cut round- 
ed rather than sharp 
like bits. Inner bits are 
seldom used. 



CaJ^-cJ) 



Under half-scallop. 



Over scallop. 

Scallops may be known 

as double bits. 



<2i:K> 



Under scallop over half- 
crop. 

Half-crops are often 
known either as bits or 
swallow forks. 



Under half -crop and 
over staple. 

Staples may often be 
known as bits. 



Inner half- moon and 
end staple. 

Inner half-moons are 
seldom used. 



Under staple 



This may also be known ( pl f 

as an under bit. \J~L'^T^\.!_-V 



Half-moon and inner 

under staple. 

Inner staples are seldom 

used. 



Inner swallow fork and 

hole. 

Inner swallow forks and 

holes are seldom used. 



Inner split, inner hack 
and split. 

Inner splits and inner 
hacks are seldom used. 



Fig. 219. 



294 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

3. Ear Buttons.— These are used chiefly on registered and graded 
stock kept within an enclosure and considered too valuable for 
exhibition purposes to justify their mutilation by marks or 
brands. The buttons may bear an animal's age, its number 
in the herd, the owner's name and address, or any other infor- 
mation required. They are made in two pieces as shown in 
Fig. 220 and are fastened in the animal's ear by means of a pair 
of pliers especially designed for the purpose. Their chief dis- 
advantage lies in the fact that the information they bear is nec- 





Sheep and Hog Size 




Cattle Size 



T. 



it 



.C. JONES 



Fig. 220. 



Extra Cattle Size 



Fig. 221. 




35 

J. C. JONES 

PRESCOTT, ARIZ. 



Fig. 222. — Ear tags. 



essarily of such small characters that it can not be ascertained 
except at very close range. 

4. Ear Loops. — These are shown in Fig. 221 and are fastened 
through a slit in the ear. Their use is confined chiefly to stock 
that is kept in pasture or for exhibition purposes. Like ear 
buttons they may bear any information desired. 

5. Ear Tags. — Ear tags are suspended from a ring or loop in an 
animal's ear. They are seldom used on stock except when the 
animals are to be kept closely confined. Brush, stiff weeds, and 
barbs along wire fences soon tear them out. 

6. Dewlaps. — A dewlap is an incision in the loose flap of skin 
under a cow's neck as shown in Fig. 209. This method of 



LIVE STOCK 295 

marking is used on cattle that are pastured • or ranged where 
there is little brush and few snags. If these are encountered the 
dewlap may be severely torn. 

AGES OF CATTLE 

Cattle, unhke horses, have no incisors in the upper jaw, this 
physical characteristic being common to all cloven-hoofed ani- 
mals that chew the cud. The teeth to be examined in deter- 
mining a cow's age are the incisors in the lower jaw. They are 
eight in number and are known, from center to the sides, as 
" pinchers," " middles," " laterals," and " corners." 

To Two Years. — Temporary pinchers and middles are present 
at birth, or appear soon after, and are followed by the temporary 
laterals in from ten to twelve days and by the temporary corners 
in four or five weeks. All are replaced, in the order of their 
appearance, by permanent teeth, the pinchers appearing at the 
age of from sixteen to twenty months and being in place at 
two years. ^ 

Three Years. — The middles appear at about thirty months 
of age and are in place- at three years. 

Four Years. — Laterals appear at the age of three and one- 
half or four years and are well in place at four. 

Five Years. — Corners appear at from three and one-haK to 
four and one-half years and are in place at five, when the animal 
is said to have a " full mouth." 

Over Five Years. — All incisors gradually grow thicker from 
front to rear, draw away from each other, and instead of being 
sharp, as in early age, have low, flat, triangular or circular crowns. 

1 Where cattle range on brushy areas and depend chiefly on browse for 
subsistence, as in the Southwest, the temporary teeth are often lost 
prematurely as the animals bite and pull at the brush. As a result 
their age can not always be determined with a satisfactory degree of 
accuracy. 



MISCELLANEOUS 

AILMENTS AND INJURIES 
TREATMENTS 

Antiseptics. — Antiseptic treatment of wounds is never neces- 
sary unless disinfection has been neglected, antiseptics merely 
counteracting putrefaction which never occurs except in infection. 

Hydrogen peroxid, which acts only in wounds exposed to the 
air, has merely a mechanical action and is not a generally satis- 
factory antiseptic. Equal parts of turpentine and camphor, 
well shaken together, will be found about the most effective 
antiseptic that the field man can carry. 

Disinfectants. — These are used to prevent the appearance of 
infectious germs in open sores or wounds, any of which, unless 
they receive proper preliminary treatment, may become infected. 
It is therefore always a wise precaution to treat any wound, 
whatever the degree of its severity, with a disinfectant as soon 
as possible after the injury is sustained. 

A very effective disinfectant may be had by the use of equal 
parts of turpentine and camphor, well shaken together, and 
which may be secured at any drug store or at country stores 
where general merchandise is handled. Ordinarily, ten cents' 
worth of each will be sufficient for a year's use. In addition to 
preventing infection, this mixture will also remove soreness and 
at the same time promote healing. The chief disadvantages of 
its use are the burning sensations produced by its contact with 
an open wound and its occasional apparently poisonous effect 
on persons of subnormal or exceedingly sensitive physique. 

Demulcents. — These are used on external sores or wounds for 
purposes similar in nature to those for which blands are used 
in some cases of internal poisoning, viz., as soothing and more 
or less direct healing agents. Thus, mentholatum, a camphorate 
preparation, may be used with very satisfactory results on 
chapped or cracked hps and hands, on sunburns, and even on 
bruises amounting to lacerations. Many persons prefer cam- 
phor ice for the same uses, and still others prefer a mixture of; 

296 



MISCELLANEOUS 297 

equal parts of bay rum and glycerin, although the glycerin tends 
to dry out the skin. Still another demulcent, rather crude 
indeed, but nevertheless especially effective for use on chapped 
or cracked lips, is ear wax, removed from the ears and applied 
to the lips with the finger tips. 

Witch-hazel is also a good demulcent. 

Hot Treatments. — It is often desirable to have some means of 
supplying a patient with hot treatments when water-bags or 
bottles are not available. Such treatment may be made pos- 
sible by the use of stones, flat-irons, horseshoes, or other irons 
heated and wrapped in cloths. The heated lid of a Dutch oven 
is especially convenient. 

Another simple method is to cut away an old trouser leg, form 
it into a bag, and fill it with hot sand or earth. 

AILMENTS 
AILMENTS AND THEIR TREATMENT 

The origin of practically all ailments to which man is subject 
may be traced either directly or indu-ectly to disordered digestive 
or respiratory action; consequently, as long as these two systems 
are kept in proper order, the average field man need anticipate 
no serious physical disorders. 

Too much emphasis can not be placed upon the necessity for 
careful attention to the primary stages of any ailment, and, unless 
this attention is bestowed when and where it is specifically 
needed, other and more serious comphcations will inevitably 
follow. 

Biliousness. — This may prove to be a persistent trouble in 
the field, but it constitutes about the only severe ailment a field 
man need expect. Carelessness in combating it, however, in- 
variably results in serious comphcations. As a rule it is due to 
disordered or overworked digestive organs or to irregular or 
excessive eating. The primary stages are indicated by a bad 
taste in the mouth, dizziness, headache, a coated tongue, and 
sometimes a generally tired or aching feeling over the entire 
body may be present. Sudden changes of position, such as 
arising quickly or suddenly changing the fine of vision, may 
result in transient bhndness, the eyeballs throb and ache, a 
sensation of fulness appears in the head, and the circulation is 
poor. These symptoms indicate that the digestive system must 



298 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

be given a complete rest and allowed to regain its normal 
condition. 

This may be done by the use of some reliable purgative which 
will clean the organs and assist them in throwing off the excess 
load placed upon them. Such a purgative should contain a 
minimum of calomel, if any at all, or salivation may result. 
Calomel acts as a very efficient restorative, but care must be 
taken to see that it passes through the bowels without delay 
and that it is not allowed to accumulate there. Epsom salt, 
being more in the nature of a laxative than a purgative, may 
be used after calomel has been taken, and will in all ordinary 
cases thoroughly cleanse the bowels of any calomel that may 
have remained inactive in them. 

Except in very severe cases, two or three days' use of a pur- 
gative should prove sufficient for the restoration of normal 
conditions in the aUmentary canal. 

Malaria. — The average field man is stationed high up in the 
mountains away from low, poorly drained localities where the 
malaria mosquito (Anopheles) breeds, and is therefore less likely 
to suffer from malaria than other men who may be required to 
work in mosquito-infected districts. 

Malaria Mosquitoes. — The common mosquito may be taken 
as a fairly representative type of the twenty-four principal varie- 
ties of mosquito found in the United States. The proboscis of 
the male is too poorly developed to permit it being thrust into 
the skin of animals, and the male therefore feeds on plant juices. 
The female has a strong, needle-shaped proboscis, which, when 
viewed under a strong magnifying-glass, resembles a coarse, 
round file. She lays her eggs in boat-shaped masses, of from 
two hundred to four hundred eggs, in stagnant fresh water, and 
these hatch in about sixteen hours, producing larvae known as 
" wrigglers." The larvae feed upon minute aquatic organisms, 
and under favorable conditions, such as very warm weather, 
develop into pupae in about seven days. 

The pupae float on the surface of the water for two or three 
days, and the perfect insect then appears, its entire life cover- 
ing a period of from ten days to two weeks, unless cold weather 
has forced it into a dormant stage, in which it may remain during 
the winter. 

The most effective method of preventing incubation and de- 
velopment of the larvae and pupae is to pour kerosene oil, gaso- 



MISCELLANEOUS 299 

line, or petroleum into the pond or pool where eggs have been 
laid. The oil forms in a thin film over the sm-face of the water 
and prevents the immature insects from breathing. If no oils 
are available common salt may be used, making the water in the 
pool from 2% to 3% salt. 

The malaria mosquito may be distinguished from the common 
mosquito by her spotted wings, while the yellow-fever mosquito 
{Stegomya) has silvery stripes on the thorax and abdomen. The 
last-named mosquito is found only in very warm localities. 

Transmission of Malaria. — The parasite which causes malaria 
is an animalcule called Hoemamoeba, which infests and remains 
in a red corpuscle until this is completely filled. It then divides 
into innumerable spores, which escape into the plasma of the 
blood and finally infest other corpuscles. Paroxysms of chills 
and fever are produced by the simultaneous release of great 
numbers of these spores. One variety of parasite causes daily 
paroxysms; another produces the spores every other day, the 
paroxysmal periods corresponding to the periods when the spores 
are liberated; and another variety, hberating the spores every 
third day, produces the paroxysms on these days.^ 

Symptoms. — Thege may be and frequently are preceded by 
biliousness, persons in this condition being much more suscep- 
tible to malaria than those who do not suffer from disordered 
digestive organs. There is a general feehng of soreness through- 
out the body, and this is especially noticeable in the muscles at 
the small of the back. The patient is dull and Ustless, stretches 
and yawns frequently, and is unable to rest long in one position. 
Fever may be preceded by a distinct chiU that causes the body 
to shake and the teeth to chatter. The chiU lasts from thirty 
minutes to an hour, and during the interval the finger-nails as- 
sume a bluish or purpUsh tint. Fever may last from one to 
four hours and is succeeded by a sweating stage, and compara- 
tive comfort is then enjoyed until the next paroxysm. In some 
cases there may be no chiU or cold stage, the patient merely 
having a high fever for several hours followed by defervescent 
sweating. In a mild case no paroxysm occurs the second day, 
but may be expected to appear on the third day, and if proper 
precautions have been observed should not be as severe as the 



' In malarial districts of the South, malaria may be known as 
other-day shakes," "every-day shakes," and "third-day shakes. 



300 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

first. If malignant malaria results in daily paroxysms, a change 
of climate is advisable. 

Treatment. — If constipation is present a good purgative is re- 
quired. After the purgative acts, three-grain doses of quinine 
should be taken at intervals of two hours until the ears ring 
or nervousness begins to appear. Such treatment should be 
continued daily until paroxysms no longer occur. Two-grain 
doses of quinine three times daily for two or three days will 
prevent an immediate return of malarial symptoms, the bowels 
during this period being kept regular. 

Quinine can best be taken in capsules, which may be filled at 
any drug-store. 

Diarrhea. — This may result from a change of diet or water, 
and has a very weakening effect on the patient. It indicates 
the presence in the alimentary canal of some substance that 
nature is trying to eject. 

The most effective treatment is a tablespoonful of castor oil, 
which will act as a mild purgative and thereby assist nature in 
removing an objectionable load from the digestive organs. 
Little or no food should be taken for a day or more, and the 
organs should be given a complete rest. 

Dysentery. — This follows diarrhea. Castor oil should be 
taken the same as for diarrhea, and a complete rest is essential 
to quick recovery. After the purgative has acted, five drops 
of laudanum and ten grains of bismuth should be taken every 
three or four hours. A Uquid diet is necessary. 

Cholera Morbus. — This is another disorder of the digestive 
organs arising from the use of foods that have a more or less 
poisonous effect on them. Cramps or convulsions may occur, 
and intense pain is felt in the bowels. A very gentle emetic 
often proves effective, after which warm or hot-water bags should 
be appUed over the seat of the pain. Drinks of hot pepper or 
ginger tea are also effective. If these fail to give rehef ten 
drops of laudanum may be used. 

Cramps. — This is merely another name for a very slight attack 
of cholera niorbus, the symptoms being similar and requiring 
the same treatment. 

Headache. — This is generally due to indigestion, and the 
cause must be removed before permanent rehef can be ob- 
tained. Temporary rehef may be secured by drinking half a 
pint of water in which two teaspoonfuls of powdered charcoal 



MISCELLANEOUS 301 

have been mixed. Headache is usually one of the first notice- 
able symptoms of bihousness, and immediate precautions should 
be taken to combat this ailment. 

Toothache. — Apply equal parts of pulverized alum and table 
salt to the affected tooth. Fill hollow teeth with absorbent 
cotton soaked in chloroform. If the nerve is exposed have the 
tooth attended to by a competent dentist. 

Sore Lips. — Extremely dry, windy weather often causes the 
lips to crack or otherwise suffer as the result of their unnatur- 
ally dry condition. Soreness may be removed, heahng pro- 
moted, and the skin softened by the use of mentholatum, cam- 
phor ice, or vaseline. After a few weeks of constant exposure 
to wind and dry weather the skin will become so toughened that 
httle or no more trouble from soreness need be anticipated. 

Sore Throat. — Gargle with a strong solution of salt water or 
saturate a woolen cloth or sock with hot turpentine and grease 
or lard, equal parts, and bind it about the throat upon retiring 
for the night. 

Sore Lungs. — Bathe the chest, neck, and the sides of the body 
with hot turpentine and grease, equal parts, and rub vigorously. 
Upon retiring for the night pin a cloth, saturated with hot tur- 
pentine and grease, to the night clothes in such a manner that 
it will rest directly upon the breast. 

Bleeding at the Nose. — Bathe the sides of the nose and the 
back of the neck in cold water or rub them with ice or snow. 
Snuffing cold water into the nostrils is also effective. Medical 
attention should be secured if bleeding is persistent and so pro- 
fuse that the patient becomes weak through loss of blood. 

Felon. — Apply a mixture of equal parts of hot turpentine and 
pulverized salt to the felon in the form of a poultice. Hot flax- 
seed poultices are also good. Any poultice should be removed 
as soon as it becomes cold and another hot one should be 
apphed. 

Chilblains. — This affection is the result of exposure to cold 
and generally proves most severe in the heels. Applications of 
ice or cold water usually remove the soreness. The feet should 
not be bathed in warm water to remove soreness. 

Corns. — These result from the wearing of improperly fitting 
"Shoes. Apply tincture of iodin several times daily. Cover corns 
between the toes with a cloth soaked in the tincture and gly- 
cerin. Another effective treatment is frequent appUcations of 



302 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

acetic acid, which may be used on either hard or soft corns. 
Finally, wear shoes that fit. 

Ingrowing Toenails. — Like corns, these are caused by ill-fit- 
ting shoes. They should be scraped thin at the top in order to 
weaken them at that point and allow a buckling-up process to 
take place, dui-ing which the edges will be drawn upward out 
of the sides of the toe. 

Chapped Hands. — This trouble usually appears as the result 
of prolonged exposure to extreme frost or cold weather when 
there is not sufficient moisture or elasticity in the skin to pre- 
vent it from cracking, as it contracts through cold. Bay rum 
and glycerin, equal parts, will prove temporarily effective, but 
can not be recommended as preferable to mentholatum. 

Laborers engaged in work that causes the skin on the palms 
and the lower surfaces of the fingers to thicken and harden 
often suffer from deep cracks in the skin surrounding the joints. 
This trouble is frequently remedied by means of a cord tied 
about the joint in such a way that it fits into the crack and 
against its raw surfaces, thus protecting these parts from injury 
and allowing the crack to heal from the bottom outward. 

INJURIES 

In the regular course of their work field men are subjected to 
a number of possible injuries, and unless they possess some 
knowledge of the treatment required in a specific case they may 
suffer from severe complications later on. Often they are re- 
mote from medical supphes or attention, and in such cases must 
of course treat themselves. 

The most important factor in any treatment is presence of 
mind, and in case of an injury the field man who becomes excited 
only makes a bad matter worse. 

Open wounds should be washed clean and kept so; if dirt 
or other foreign substances are allowed to enter, the wounds 
can not heal properly. Too much attention can not be given 
to antispetic precautions or to sanitary measures, and a hberal 
use of disinfectants is always advisable. The most serious ef- 
fects of injuries are not always due to the injuries themselves, 
but in many instances develop as the result of improper or* 
careless prehminary treatment. 

Cuts. — These probably constitute the chief injuries received 



MISCELLANEOUS 303 

in the field, and unless they are unusually deep or ragged no 
complications should ensue. The first thing to determine is 
whether or not an artery has been severed, and this will he 
indicated by strong regular spurts of bright-red blood. When 
such a course is possible a tourniquet should be applied between 
the wound and the heart,' and the injured part should be ele- 
vated above the latter. Soot, cobwebs, or mud should never 
be bound on a cut; it should be washed with from three to 
five drops of carboHc acid in a pint of water. 

Darker blood, flowing in a slow, steady stream, indicates a 
severed vein, and such a wound seldom proves serious. Bleed- 
ing may be stopped by binding fresh flour to the wound. In 
severe cases a tourniquet may be used, being appHed at a point 
which brings the wound between it and the heart. 

Blood which merely oozes out in a few large drops or a num- 
ber of very small ones indicates injured capillaries, and such a 
wound requires no attention other than possibly that of the 
use of a disinfectant. 

Hydrogen peroxid applied to a wound will " boil " if the 
wound is festering or if other unnatural conditions exist. Sore- 
ness may be removed by frequent application of turpentine and 
camphor in equal parts. This wiU produce a severe burning 
sensation if applied to an open cut, and in some instances may 
even have a sHghtly poisonous effect on the patient, but as a 
general rule it is as effective a remedy as can be used. 

Gunshot Wounds. — Ordinarily, by reason of the fact that the 
edges of the wounds are ragged or torn, these are more difficult 
to treat than other lacerations. Care must be taken to wash 
them thoroughly and to prevent infection as they heal. If very 
serious, they should be treated by a competent physician. 

Burns. — ^Wash the wounds, then apply castor oil, taking care 
to see that no blisters are broken. Bandages should not be used, 
but if they are found to be absolutely necessary they should be 
light and open enough to allow the escape of natural heat from 
beneath them. Air may be kept from the wounds by apphca- 
tions of castor oil or vaseline. Cotton saturated with vinegar 
and laid on the wounds is said to prevent scars. 

Bruises. — These should be bathed for an horn* or two, accord- 
ing to their severity, in warm water. Allow the temperature 
of the water to decrease gradually, and finally bathe with cold 
water. Raw beef bound to the wound will remove discolora- 



304 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

tion, or a cloth soaked in very hot water, wrung dry, and applied 
to the wound will serve the purpose as well. 

Fractures. — Provide complete rest and see that the injured 
part is protected from unnecessary movement. Bathe the af- 
fected part in cold water to keep down fever, and secure expert 
medical attention at once. If a spUntered bone is forced through 
the skin, no attempt should be made by an inexperienced person 
to replace it unless expert attention is absolutely out of the 
question. In such a case force the splintered end backward and 
if possible fit it into its natural position, fit the shattered ends 
together as well as circumstances will permit, and work the 
hmb into a natural position and hold it there by means of splints. 
These may be made from barrel staves or pieces of wooden 
boxes, or may be hewn from green timber. See that they are 
perfectly smooth and that they fit the hmb closely. Do not 
apply directly to the flesh, but bandage the latter lightly, then 
apply the splints and later make them secure with other band- 
ages. The main object is to hold the fractured ends of the 
bone together in one position till they knit. 

Dislocations. — Pull or otherwise force the joint into its nat- 
ural position and then bathe the parts surrounding it with warm 
water and treat as a bruise. In some instances cold water may 
give more relief than warm water. Give the joint a complete 
rest and do not use it till all soreness has disappeared. 

Sprains. — These are caused by excessive strain on the tendons. 
Allow a good rest of the injured parts and bathe in turpentine 
and camphor, equal parts. Do not use the member till soreness 
has disappeared. 

Faint. — This may result from, biliousness, fright, or sudden 
surprise, extreme mental or physical pain, or from a disordered 
circulatory system due to improper nerve control. The direct 
cause is lack of blood in the brain. 

Lay the patient flat on his back with the hmbs extended and 
the head lower than the body, loosen the clothing about the 
throat and waist, and dash cold water in the face. Stimulate 
with a tablespoonful of whiskey or with strong smelling salts 
held close to the nose. External stimulation may be secured 
by rubbing the body with alcohol or by chafing the hands and 
arms. Upon revival remove the patient to quiet quarters and 
allow a complete rest. 

If due to biliousness remove the cause. 



MISCELLANEOUS 305 

Shock. — This is similar to faint and should be given the 
same treatment. 

Freezing. — There is little danger of serious freezing as long 
as a sensation of extreme cold is felt; freezing occurs at the 
time these sensations cease and is responsible for their disap- 
pearance. Frozen parts may be distinguished by their dead- 
white appearance and insensibility. 

The first sjinptom is a feeling of extreme cold, which soon 
disappears and leads the patient to beheve that warmth is 
returning; drowsiness soon appears and the patient has an un- 
controllable desire for sleep. It is very necessary, however, to 
see that he is not allowed to sleep, as this invariably results fa- 
tally. He should be forced to exercise, and to adopt such other 
methods as wiR serve to stimulate circulation of the blood. If he 
has become so numb that physical action is impossible he should 
be taken into a snowbank or other shelter where the wind can 
not strike him and should then be rubbed vigorously with ice 
or snow or bathed in the coldest water obtainable. He should 
never be taken into a warm room until all frost has been removed 
and he no longer feels numb. 

If amputation becomes necessary it should be done by a 
surgeon who is thoroughly famihar with the prevention of 
blood-poisoning . 

Sunstroke. — Remove the patient to the shade and lay him 
flat on his back, dash cold water in his face, and see that the 
clothing is loosened. If recovery does not occur in from forty- 
five minutes to an hour, salt should be added to the water until 
a strong solution is secured. Recovery is seldom so complete 
that the patient will be able to withstand exposure to extreme 
heat again without a recurrence of the stroke. 

Drowning. — Lay the patient face downward over a log or a 
roll of clothing in such a way that the pressure of the support 
is against his stomach. Place one or both fore-arms beneath 
his forehead to keep this from the ground, then press down 
vigorously on his back, afterward turning him over and pressing 
on his chest. Alternate pressing of the back and chest should 
be continued until aU the water has been removed from the 
lungs. 

If this treatment fails to remove the water, stand astride the 
patient's body as he lies face downward, seize him at either 
side just below the ribs, and give the body a sudden jerk upward, 



306 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



taking care to see that the operation does not result in bruising 
the face against the ground. In event this also fails to remove 
the water from the lungs, the attendant, if he is strong enough, 
should hoist the patient to his back, the patient's head down 
and the crook of his knees resting over the attendant's shoulders, 
while the attendant holds the patient there by a firm grasp of 
the ankles. In this position the patient may be carried about 
at a rough, jolting walk or run for several minutes, during which 
time most of the water will be shaken from his lungs. 

If natural respiration does not reappear soon after the water 
has been removed from the lungs, the patient should be laid 
flat on his back, and the attendant should then hold shut the nos- 




^Scorpion. 



Tarantula. 




trils while he forces his own breath into the lungs of the patient, 
removing it by pressure on the chest. This should be continued 
until respiration begins again in a normal manner, care being 
taken, of course, not to interrupt the first faint breaths that occur. 

The patient should be removed to quiet quarters and given a 
complete rest as soon as natural respiration has been secured. 

Lightning Stroke. — This should be treated the same as sun- 
stroke. 



MISCELLANEOUS 307 

Tarantula, Centiped and Scorpion Wounds. — These should be 
bathed in turpentine for about twenty minutes and care should 
be taken to see that all parts of the wounds are reached. 

Contrary to a general belief that such wounds are invariably 
fatal they will seldom prove more than temporarily serious 
unless the patient is in a generally run-down physical condition. 

Catfish Wounds. — These are inflicted by means of the spines 
appearing at the gills and at the front of the dorsal fin of the 
catfish. They frequently result in severe soreness, but no per- 
manent ill effects should follow if the wounds are thoroughly 
bathed in tm-pentine immediately after they are inflicted. 

Dog Bites. — Expert medical attention should be secured im- 
mediately if there is reason to beUeve that the bite has been 
inflicted by an animal suffering from hydrophobia. ^ The animal's 
brain should be secured in such cases if this is possible and 
should be examined by competent authority to ascertain whether 
or not indications of hydrophobia are present. In*any case the 
wound should be well opened and filled with turpentine. 

Snake Bites. — The average field man, in the course of his 
regular duties, encounters so few poisonous snakes that he gives 
little or no attention to the study of means to counteract the 
poison. It is well,' however, for him to be prepared for emer- 
gencies and to know what should be done in case he is bitten 
by a poisonous snake. 

The poison is primarily a violent blood poison rather than a 
stomach poison, although its presence in the circulatory system 
will cause severe illness and nausea. Thick, laborious breathing 
and physical exhaustion are prominent symptoms, nausea is 
present but vomiting is difficult, dizziness occurs and partial 
muscular paralysis attends the advanced stages. Severe internal 
pains produce spasms and a violent swelling appears about {he 
wound. 

^ The following treatment is said to counteract hydrophobia poison- 
ing, but since there has been no opportimity to verify its actual work- 
ings it is not offered as strictly infallible: Bruise up one and one-half 
ounces of green Elecampane root, a composite plant allied to the aster, 
and put it in a pint of sweet milk. If the green root is not available 
use the dried root, which can be secured at most drvig stores. Boil 
the milk down to one- half pint, let it cool then drink it. Repeat the 
dose in ten or twelve hours but use two ounces of the root. Take a 
third two-ounce dose twelve hours later. Eat nothing for a period of 
from six to eight hours after each dose. 



308 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Action should be immediate. Locate the wound and make 
an incision in it to allow free bleeding. If the teeth are sound 
and the lips free from cracks or other lacerations and the wound 
can be so reached it should be sucked vigorously. A strong 
emetic, such as mustard water or warm salt water, should be 
taken immediately afterward in order to throw off any poison 
that may have entered the stomach through the mouth and 
throat. 

Instances have been known where chewing and swallowing 
tobacco and its juice have counteracted the effects of the poison 
injected through the wound. Another method is to soak the 
■wound in turpentine or in a strong solution of kerosene oil and 
gait. Moderate drafts of whiskey may prove effective, but in 
the majority of cases which prove fatal, death is doubtless due 
more to the excessive amounts of whiskey taken than to the 
effects of the poison itself. 

The most effective remedy is an injection of permanganate 
of potash, one part of it being used with one hundred parts of 
water. It comes in the shape of small grains, similar in appear- 
ance to gunpowder, and can be secured at any drug store. ^ 

1 The following official memorandum, issued to Forest officers in 
District 3, on September 13, 1915, may prove of interest: "Snake 
bites are most often received on the legs, below the knees, and less 
frequently on the hands or arms. Wherever the bite may be located, 
first-aid treatment miist be given quickly to be effective. In the case 
of a bite on the foot or leg below the knee, the first thing to do is to 
expose the limb instantly and bandage or hgature it just above the 
knee so tightly as to at once stop the flow of blood and prevent as 
far as possible the distribution of the poison to other parts of the body. 
In the case of a bite on the hand or forearm, place the bandage just 
above the elbow. Anytliing that can be tied, such as a rope, strap, 
handkerchief, wiU answer. A pad of cloth placed \m.der the knee wiU 
help to make the bandaging more effective. The second step is to sink 
the point of a clean, sharp knife to the bottom of each wound made by 
the snake's fangs, which usually penetrate about one-fourth of an inch, 
and to sUt the flesh parallel with the hmb, for one-third "to half an 
inch; avoid cutting across or around the Umb, which is more hkely to 
sever a blood vessel. Pinch and rub the flesh about the wound and suck 
the blood from it for several minutes, or as long as a free flow of blood 
continues. This will remove much of the venom. The blood and 
poison should be spit out quickly from time to time. (No one having 
abrasions, open sores, or cuts on the Mps or in the mouth should suck 
a wound, as these may take up the poison.) The third step is to 
thoroughly steriUze the wound by an application of permanganate of 
potash. Spread the wound open and pour the crystals into the cut 



MISCELLANEOUS 300 

it is true that so many bites may be inflicted that death may 
be ahnost instantaneous, but this is a very rare occurrence. 

Poisoning. — This may occui' as a result of impm-e foodstuffs 
being taken into the stomach, may result from mistakes made 
in compounding or administering drugs or medicines, or it may 
result from a deliberate attempt at self-destruction. Action in 
any case should be prompt and unattended by excitement or 
confusion, and should be persistent until the poison has been 
ejected or neutrahzed and the patient made as comfortable as 
conditions will permit. 

In near 1 J' every case it is advisable to administer an emetic 
as soon as the first indication of poisoning appears. While -the 
stomach is being emptied, an antidote may be prepared, and 
action will thus be hastened and httle or no time lost. 

Emetics. — The most effective emetic that can be used con- 
sists of ^/lo-gi'ain of apomorphin hydrochlorid dissolved in a 
sjTingeful of water, the patient being given hberal quantities of 
water afterward for purposes of dilution. Another emetic con- 
sists of strong, warm, salt water, while another may be made 
of strong mustard water. If none of these is available vomit- 
ing may be induced by thrusting the finger far do^Ti in the 
patient's throat. 

Antidotes. — These are given as means of neutralizing poisons 
to an extent that renders them ineffective. A general rule is 
to give an acid antidote for alkaUne poisoning and an alkaline 
antidote for acid poisoning. 

Blands. — Blands are of a demulcent or soothing nature, and 
should be given in all cases where the nature of a poison has 



freely. An application of iodin in the form of a strong tincture or 
crjstals will answer, if the permanganate is not available. Keep the 
Umb bandaged for at least an horn' after the blood has been thoroughly 
sucked from the wound. Then the bandage can be slackened a httle 
proA-ided the patient shows but Mttle effect (depression), from the 
poison. If the patient is greatly affected, do not loosen the bandage. 
When snake bites are received in a part of the body where a bandage 
can not be appUed effectively, opening the woimd, sucking out the 
blood and poison, and steriUzing the wound is all that can be done 
before taking the patient to a doctor, which in all cases should, if 
possible, be done promptly. A large dose of whiskey, brandy, diluted 
alcohol, or aromatic spirits of aramonia should be given at once and 
repeated as often as is necessary to keep up the patient's strength. Of 
course, the services of a physician should be seciu'ed as soon as possible." 



310 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



been such as to corrode or burn the membranes attacked. Sweet 
millc, raw eggs, and olive oil are about the most effective. 

Stimulants. — In event a poison leaves the patient physically 
exhausted or mentally depressed these conditions may be over- 
come by administering Uberal drinks of strong tea or coffee, and 
if these are not available then whiskey or brandy may be used 
instead. The first two, however, are preferable in most cases." 
If the effect of the poison causes nervousness, extreme sensitive- 
ness, or excitability, then, of course, a stimulant should not 
be used. 

POISONS 

These occur in such a multitude of forms that no attempt 
whatever will be made here to classify them in their various 
orders. Only such poisons as the field man may possibly en- 
counter during his field work can be considered and these are 
arranged alphabetically for quicker reference. 



Poisons Symptoms 

Aconite Numbness in lips and 

tongue ; tingling sensa- 
tion in limbs. 

Alcohol Unconsciousness ; deep res- 
piration; snoring; pale- 
ness; weak heart-action. 

Ammonium Severe pains in stomach 

hydroxid. . . . and bowels;. stained lips 
and mouth; vomiting. 

Ammonia (See above.) 

Arsenic Vomiting ; xmconscious- 

ness; pain in mouth, 
stomach and bowels ; 
exhaiistion. 

Atropia Drowsiness ; unconscious- 
ness ; deep breathing ; 
flushed face and dilated 
pupils. 



Belladonna . 



Bromin . 



Staggering; delirium; face 
flushed; dry mouth and 
throat ; bright, dilated 
pupils. 

Abdominal pains; vomit- 
ing; diarrhea; impaired 
heart-action and res- 
piration ; local muscular 
spasms. 



Treatment 
Emetic: complete rest; 

stimulant if necessary ; 

warmth. 
Emetic ; large quantity of 

sweet milk or strong 

coffee. 
No emetic necessary ; 

vinegar or lemon juice ; 

bland ; stimulant if 

necessai-y ; rest and 

quiet. 
Emetic; raw eggs well 

beaten; stimulant ; 

rest. 

Emetic ; stimulants ; keep 
the patient aroused, 
and, if necessary, pro- 
duce artificial respira- 
tion. 

Emetic; strong coffee or 
tea; keep Umbs warm; 
allow plenty of rest for 
complete recovery. 

Emetic; stimulant; 
warmth. 



MISCELLANEOUS 



311 



Poisons 
Camphor . 



Cantharides. 



Carbolic acid. 



Charcoal fumes 



Chloral. 



Chlorin 

Chloroform .... 



Chromic acid. . . 



Cicuta . 



Cocaine. 



Symptoms 

Burning sensation in all 
parts attacked ; dizzi- 
ness ; headache ; impaired 
vision ; convulsions ; ir- 
regular pulse: nausea. 

Externally, blisters ; in- 
ternally, same; nausea; 
vomiting. 



Pains in mouth, stomach, 
and bowels; hps and 
mouth burned white ; 
tongue swoUen; spasms 
and unconsciousness. 

Flushed face; short and 
rapid respiration ; sur- 
face of body cold; in 
sUght attack similar to 
intoxication. 

Similar to intoxication ; 
nausea ; vomiting ; irreg- 
ular ptdse and respira- 
tion; face flushed; ex- 
tremities cold ; convul- 
sions may occur. 

Inhaled : suffocation, 
coughing, pains in chest. 

First stage, warm feeling 
and tingling sensations, 
followed by uncon- 
sciousness, relaxation 
and vomiting. 



Muscular cramps; vomit- 
ing; diarrhea; slow res- 
piration; coUapse. 

Weakness; partial paraly- 
sis ; dilated pupils ; weak- 
ened respiration, which, 

. in a fatal case, causes 
the death. 

Dry, burning throat and 
nose; burning in 
stomach; quick pulse at 
first, but becomes slow; 
cold extremities ; dilated 
pupils. 



Treatment 
Emetic; castor oil or 
alcohol; rest. 



Emetic; no oils should 
be given; give drinks 
of gruel, water and 
meal or flour or other 
mucilaginous drinks. 

Sweet milk, melted but- 
ter or lard, or alcohol ; 
bland ; stimulant if 
necessary; rest. 

Provide plenty of fresh 
air; artificial respira- 
tion if necessary. 



Emetic (strong) ; alka- 
line antidote; stimu- 
lant; keep the patient 
aroused and do not 
allow sleep ; produce 
artificial respiration. 

Plenty of fresh air ; to re- 
Ueve pain inhale ether. 

Artificial respiration; 
raise feet above head 
to force blood to brain ; 
if taken into stomach 
give an emetic, then 
oUve oU and stimulant ; 
keep warm. 

Emetic; large quantities 
of sweet milk. 

Emetic; stimulant; pre- 
vent cessation of res- 
piration; force patient 
to breathe. 

Emetic; liberal doses of 
powdered charcoal. 



312 



HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



Poisons 
Copper. . 



Corrosive 
sublimate . 

Cyanid of 
potassium . 

Digitalis 



Ether 

Fly poisons . 



Symptoms 
Bitter taste in mouttL; 
nausea; vomiting; colic; 
thirst. 
Pain in movith; vomiting; 
purging; abdominal 
pains; convulsions. 
Drowsiness ; insensibility ; 
flushed face ; dilated 
pupils; deep breathing. 
Impaired vision ; head- 
ache; thirst; irritation 
in stomach; pulse slow 
but strong ; impaired 
heart-action. 
See Chloroform. 
These are generally arsenic; 
symptoms are similar to 
those in arsenic poison- 
ing. 
Formaldehyd. . . See Chloral. 
Fowler's 

solution See Arsenic. 

Hartshorn See Ammonia. 

Hellebore Burning sensation in 

stomach and bowels ; 
slow, feeble pulse ; drow- 
siness; dizziness; dilated 
pupils; nausea. 
Hydrates or Hy- Soapy taste; burning sen- 
droxids of Am- sation in mouth, throat, 
monium (Am- and stomach; Ught, 
monia or Hart- accelerated breathing ; 
shorn) Potas- slow pulse; clammy skin, 
slum Sodium, 
lodin Abdominal pains ; diar- 
rhea ; vomiting ; local 
muscular spasms ; im- 
paired heart-action and 
respiration. 

Laudanum Drowsiness ; imconscious- 

ness; flushed face; di- 
lated pupils ; deep 
breathing; snoring. 

Lead salts Pains in alimentary canal ; 



Lye. 



Shriveled Ups and tongue; 
vomiting; severe pains 
in alimentary canal. 



Treatment 

Emetic; flour paste, raw 

eggs, or sweet milk. 

Emetic; raw eggs, sweet 
milk; stimulant. 

Emetic; keep patient 
awake ; produce arti- 
ficial respiration. 

Emetic; stimulant; rest; 
warmth. 



Emetic; raw eggs well 
beaten ; stimulant ; 
rest. 



Emetic; place patient 
flat on his back with 
the feet higher than 
the head; give a 
stimulant. 

Emetic; vinegar, lemon 
or lime juice; if anti- 
dote is not available, 
give a stimulant. 



Emetic ; boiled rice, flour 
or meal; remove yel- 
low stains from skin 
with ammonia. 

Emetic; prevent sleep 
and compel patient to 
move about ; stimulant; 
no rest until effects 
wear off. 

Emetic ; raw tomatoes, 
lemons, oranges ; stimu- 
lant. 

No emetic necessary ; raw 
tomatoes, lemons, or 
oranges ; stimulants ; 
rest. 



MISCELLANEOUS 



313 



Poisons Symptoms 

IMercury salts . . Vomiting ; pains in the 
alimentary canal ; insen- 
sibility. 

Morpliin Similar to laudanum, ex- 
cept pupils are con- 
tracted. 

IMuriatic acid. . . Stained and shriveled 
lips and mouth; pains 
in alimentary canal; 
vomiting. 

INlushrooms. . . . Spasms of stomach and 
bowels ; interrupted 

heart action ; excessive 
lachrymal secretions ; 
contracted pupils. 

Nicotin Extreme nausea ; vomit- 
ing; dizziness; rapid 
pulse and respiration ; 
cold extremities. 

Nitric acid See CarboUc acid. 

Nitroglycerin. . . Inhaled: a severe "powder 
headache ' ' ; taken in- 
ternally : coUc, vomit- 
ing, dizziness, and great 
weakness. 

Nux vomica. . . . Stiffness ; spasmodic ac- 
tion of muscles; con- 
vulsions. 

Opium See ISIorphin. 

Oxahc acid Intense pain in aUmen- 

tary canal ; vomiting ; 
stained or burned Ups 
and mouth. 

Paregoric See Morphin. 

Paris green Pain in ahmentary canal; 

convulsions ; vomiting ■ 
purging. 

Phosphorus .... Pain in ahmentary canal ; 
convulsions ; vomiting ; 
purging. 

Picric acid Fulness in head : roaring 

in ears; dullness; im 
paired \'ision; difficulty 
in swallowing : pulse 
weak. 

Poison Hemlock See Cicuta. 

Potash Pain in ahmentary canal; 

vomitmg ; con\'Xilsions ; 
burned Ups and mouth. 



Treatment 
Emetic ; bland ; stimu- 
lants. 

Treat as for laudanum. 



Emetic; sweet milk, raw 
eggs, Ume, plaster, 
magnesia, chalk; stim- 
ulant. 

Emetic; purgative. 



Emetic; stimulant 
warmth. 



Emetic; strong coffee. 



Emetic ; strong purga- 
tive; complete rest. 



Emetic ; chalk, hme, mag- 
nesia, or plaster ; bland ; 
stimulant. 



Emetic; raw eggs, sweet 
milk, castor-oil ; bland ; 
stimulant. 

Emetic; chalk, hme, 
plaster, magnesia; 
bland; stimulant. 

Sweet milk, melted but- 
ter or lard, or alcohol; 
bland ; stimulant ; pur- 
gative wiU only further 
irritate bowels. 

No emetic necessary : 
give raw tomatoes, 
vinegar, or lemons; 
bland: stimulant. 



314 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



Poisons 
Potassium 
chlorate . 

Potassium 
nitrate. . 



Prussic acid 
(Potassium 
cyanid).. . . 



Ptomaine . 



Rat poisons . . 
Salicylic acid . 
Silver nitrate. 



Strychnin 

Sulphuric acid. 



Tartar emetic . 
Wood alcohol. 

Zinc chlorid . . . 



Symptoms 

Pain in ahmentary canal; 
vomiting; possibly diar- 
rhea may occur. 

Pain in aUmentary canal; 
vomiting; purging; local 
muscular spasms ; im- 
paired heart-action and 
respiration. 

Palpitation of the heart; 
cold perspiration; dilat- 
ed piipils ; irregular res- 
piration; convulsions. 



Severe pain in the ali- 
mentary canal; vomit- 
ing ; purging ; convul- 
sions; cramps; extreme 
nausea. 

See Fly Poisons. 

See Picric Acid. 

Pains in throat and 
stomach; vomiting; ver- 
tigo; spasms. 

See Nux Vomica. 

Pain in aUmentary canal; 
stained or burned mouth 
and Ups; vomiting. 

Pain in alimentary canal; 
vomiting; purging. 

Nausea; headache; deUr- 
ium ; profuse prespira- 
tion; dilated pupils. 

Excessive secretions of 
saUva ; diflBculty in 
swallowing; vomiting; 
coUapse. 



Treatment 
Emetic; stimulant; rest. 



Emetic; stimulant; rest; 
warmth. 



If large amount has been 
taken no antidote will 
be effective; in very 
small amount give 
emetic, and produce 
artificial respiration. 

Emetic; purgative; 
powdered charcoal or 
wood ashes in tea- 
spoon doses; stimu- 
lant if necessary. 



Emetic; raw eggs, sweet 
milk; rest. 



Emetic; soda, chalk, 
plaster , Hme, magnesia ; 
bland; stimiilant. 

Milk or raw eggs ; bland ; 
stimulant. 

Emetic; stimulant; rest. 



Emetic; raw eggs, milk, 
or strong green tea; 
rest. 



Poisonous Plants. — It is impossible to classify these plants 
definitely because some of them may poison some persons and 
have no perceptible poisonous effect on others, some that are 
harmless to animals are very poisonous to humans and some 
that are poisonous in the raw state are harmless when cooked. 

Among the poisonous plants of the United States the most 
prominent are water hemlock, poison hemlock, henbane, black' 
nightshade, belladonna, lobelia, digitalis, aconit, hellebore, poke- 
weed and ivy. 

The last is often confused with the Virginia creeper or five- 



MISCELLANEOUS 315 

leafed ivy, which may also prove poisonous to some people, but 
may be distinguished from it by having only three leaves instead 
of five. It proves poisonous to most persons who come in con- 
tact with it and to many who get only in close proximity to it. 
The affection known as " ivy poisoning " appears in the form 
of numerous blisters, and extreme u-ritation of the infected parts 
ensues. On the hands it usually appears first between and at 
the base of the fingers, while on the feet it first appears between 
the toes. 

An effective remedy is an appHcation once or twice daily of 
buttermilk, lemon-juice, vinegar, or raw tomato. Sulphuric 
ether is also good, but must be used during the primary stages 
to be effective, and if not used till secondary inflammation ap- 
pears will be of Uttle use. Its action is to take into solution the 
volatile oil and to so spread it as to permit rapid oxidation and 
consequent weakening of the poisonous properties of the plant. 

REPTILES 

The Homed Toad. — This is not really a toad, but is a large 
lizard with a wide, flat body. It is common to the South and 
Southwest and is usually found in hot, dry, sandy localities. 
It has a fiat, circular body, somewhat greater in diameter than a 
silver doUar, and on its back and head small horn-like- protuber- 
ances appear w^hich give it its name. These " horns " also ap- 
pear around the edges of the body. The tail is blunt, the legs 
are rather long but slender, and the head is short and thick. 
The entire body is marked Tvdth dull red, orange, j'ellow, gi'ay, 
and black spots and stripes which, together with the " horns," 
give the reptile an especially unnatm-al and repulsive appearance. 
It is perfectly harmless and makes frantic efforts to escape when 
approached. 

The Mountain Boomer. — This is another large hzard found 
in the South and Southwest. It seldom exceeds 8 inches in 
length, has a long, cyUndrical body, and a large, triangular head, 
and bears markings on the body similar in color to those of the 
horned toad, the chief difference being the brighter hues. It is 
extremely timid and, upon being approached, runs away with 
hghtning-like rapidity. No reason can be given for the origin 
of the name. 

The Gila Monster. — This reptile is found only in the South- 
west, and is the largest and the only poisonous lizard found in 



316 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

this country. It grows to a length of 18 or 20 inches, and has a 
long, cyUndrical body from 2 to 3 inches in diameter and marked 
with red and brown stripes, the legs are short and thick, the 
head and tail are blunt and striped with red and brown rings, 
and the movements are sluggish. It inhabits low, hot, sandy 
localities, and the bite, though poisonous, is not necessarily fatal. 
Poisonous Snakes. — In this country these include the rattle- 
snakes, copperhead, and water moccasin or " cotton-mouth," 
the common and scientific names of which follow: ^ 

Common Name Scientific Name Habitat 

Rattlesnakes 

Banded or timber. .Crotalus horridus . .... .Eastern and Central U. S. 

Diamond back .... Crotalus adamanteus. . . . Southeastern U. S. 

Dog-faced Crotalus molossus Ariz., N. Mex., North 

Mexico 

Green Crotalus lepidus Southwestern U. S. 

Homed Crotalus cerastes Deserts, Southwest U. S. 

Massasauga Sistrurus catenatus Central U. S. 

Pacific Crotalus oregonus West U.S.; Pacific region 

Pigmy Sistrurus miliarius Southeastern U. S. 

Prairie Crotalus confluentus .... East of Rocky Mountains 

Price's Crotalus pricei Arizona 

Red Crotalus atrox ruber .... South Cal. ; Lower Cal. 

Texas Crotalus atrox Texas, Ariz., N. Mexico 

Tiger Crotalus tigris Southwestern U. S. 

West. Massasauga. Sisirwrus catenatus con- 

sors Southwestern U. S. 

White Crotalus' mitchelli Deserts; Southwest U. S. 

Copperhead Ancistrodon contortrix. . . Eastern and Central U. S. 

to Texas 

Water Moccasin Ancistrodon piscivorus . .Southwestern U. S.; 

Florida to Texas 

Common Characteristics. — The most prominent physical char- 
acteristics common to all three snakes listed are the flat, trian- 
gular head, sharp nose, broad jaws, short, heavy body rather 
disproportionate to its length, the more or less regular and well- 
defined diamond-shaped markings of the skin, the hollow, needle- 
like fangs of the upper jaw and the muscular action involved in 
advancing or lowering them, the process of emitting poison 
from the poison glands, the inability to strike unless coiled, and 
the serious effects of the bite. 

Fangs. — These are located in the upper jaw, one on either 
side, are from % to ^-inch long, hollow, and very sharp, and 

1 Supplied by Bureau of Biological Survey, U. S. Department of 
Agricvilture. 



MISCELLANEOUS 317 

slightly curved toward the rear. Except when used for offensive 
or defensive purposes they repose backward along the jaw, but 
the roots are so attached to muscles that the fangs may be 
advanced instantly. Their backward curve causes them to hang 
to whatever they may be thrust into. 

Poison Glands. — The poison glands are situated at the root of 
the fangs and consist merely of a small sac containing a violent 
blood poison which is provided in such quantities by the snake's 
system that the glands are always supphed, except immediately 
after a continued attack on the part of the snake. They refill 
\vithin the space of an horn- or so. 

Emission of Poison. — When the fang is thrust into the victim, 
the root presses against the poison gland and forces the contents 
through the minute tube in the center of the fang. The 
process is similar to the action involved in using a hj^odermic 
syringe. 

The Poison. — This is a very thin, light gi'een fluid having the 
nature of a blood poison, although its presence in the stomach 
will produce severe attacks of vomiting and even its odor may 
cause nausea. It is fatal to the snake when self administered 
through accident or otherwise. 

General Comparison of Rattlesnakes, Copperheads and Moc- 
casins. — Size. — The rattlesnake varies in length from 18 inches 
to 5 feet and instances have been kno\Mi where this length was 
exceeded. The girth varies from 3 to 8 inches. The body is 
fairly well proportioned, although rather heavy for its length, 
and at the rear extremity bears a series of horn-hke rings, com- 
monly called " rattles,"^ and from which the snake derives its 
name. 

Copperheads are so called from the bright coppery appear- 
ance of the head. They attain a length of from 12 to 24 inches 
and in gu-th vary from 3 to 6 inches. The body is short and 
heavy and the head rather disproportionately large. 

Moccasins, or " cotton-mouths " as they are frequently known, 
vary in length from 18 inches to 3 feet. The average gii'th is 

1 Contrary to a general belief, the number of rattles does not indicate 
the snake's age. The young snake at birth possesses the "button" 
seen at the end of a perfect series of rattles, and acquires a new " rattle " 
each time the skin is shed. Shedding may occur one, two, three or 
even four times in a year. The "rattles" are the only portion of the 
snake's skin that is not shed. 



318 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

about 4 or 5 inches. The body is rather flat and somewhat 
too heavy for its length. 

Color. — Rattlesnakes vary in color from rusty brown to light 
yellow. The diamonds or bands are darker and are well de- 
fined. The under side of the body may be splotched with yellow 
or brown markings. Copperheads are of a rusty brown oi- 
copper color. If shady places have been frequented the skin is 
bright and smooth with a light copper color; when sunburnt it 
appears rough and rusty. Like the rattlesnakes, copperheads are 
marked with " diamonds " along the upper side of the body. 
These diamonds may be Kghter or they may be darker than 
other parts of the skin. They diminish in size toward the rear 
and finally disappear altogether, leaving the extreme tail tip a 
solid color and usually Ughter than the rest of the skin. They 
also diminish in size toward the head but do not disappear en- 
tirely. The head is smooth and hght brown and has a pro- 
nounced triangular shape. 

Moccasins are also marked with the '' diamonds." The gen- 
eral color is light or dark brown, depending upon whether or not 
the skin is sunburnt. The scales are large and widely sepa- 
rated so that when they are slightly displaced the w^hite skin 
shows through between them. 

Habits. — The general opinion that a rattlesnake aiways warns 
his victim by '^ ratthng " is erroneous. ^ The rule is general but 
by no means invariable and can not be depended upon to indi- 
cate the snake's presence in all instances. 

These snakes frequent clumps of bushes or grass and sage, may 
be found coiled under cacti or in rough cliffs or stone heaps, and 
frequently appear coiled or stretched at fuU length on the warm 
sand in full sunhght. They are by no means timid but are 
seldom the aggressor. 

Copperheads are distinctively Southern, although they appear 
in some of the Northern States, and will be found about 
barns, granaries and other outbuildings infested by rats, mice, 



1 A diamond-back rattlesnake in southern Arkansas was pushed 
with a pole from the shadows of a bush into sunlight for its photograph 
and could not be induced to "rattle"; a prairie rattlesnake in South 
Dakota was carried for a distance of more than a mile entwined in a 
plum bush and never "rattled"; and in Arizona a dog-faced rattle- 
snake, coiled under a cactus, could not be induced to "rattle" even 
though it was dragged out and stoned to death, 



MISCELLANEOUS 319 

and lizards. They may also be found under dwellings or about 
wells and springs where toads and frogs appear. At other places 
they may appear under clumps of brush or grass where they He 
in wait for prey, or they may be found stretched out full length 
on a flat, warm rock in the sunshine. Frequently they are 
found in groups of from two to a dozen individuals. By nature 
they are pugnacious and vicious fighters and seldom attempt to 
escape when attacked. They are stealthy, move silently, and 
never appear in a hurry unless in an offensive or defensive 
attitude when they strike quickly, accm-ately, and repeatedly. 

Moccasins, which on account of the soft white, cottonlike 
appearance of the lining of their mouths are frequently known 
as " cotton-mouths," inhabit lagoons, bayous, pools, and streams 
of running water. They also appear in swamps and drainage 
ditches or along water-filled ditches beside roads and trails. 
They are of a timid nature and will escape from danger when 
this is possible but fight with vigor when forced to defend them- 
selves. Their strength and great size render them formidable 
opponents. 

LOCATION OF CAMP SITES 

Water. — The one thing of most importance in locating a camp 
site is a supply of water. This is absolutely essential except 
at temporary camps where a supply of water is provided in bar- 
rels or canteens. 

When camps are to be more or less permanent in nature they 
should be located at a point far enough away from and above the 
source of water supply to prevent its contamination by contact 
with camp refuse if this is allowed to accumulate. It should, 
however, either be burned or buried. 

Fuel. — This is the next important item to consider. Ordi- 
narily, where camps are estabhshed in wooded regions, there will 
be found sufficient dead and down material to provide for all 
fuel needed either for heating or cooking purposes. But if no 
wood is available and a camp is to be made in open country, 
dry stock manure will prove an excellent substitute. 

Accessibility. — This also demands close attention. If trans- 
portation of equipment and suppHes is to be by means of wagons 
it is especially desirable to have the camp located at a. point 
where the wagons may reach it without difficulty and where 
they may even have plenty of room in which to be backed or 



320 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

turned about. The camp may be located in a much rougher 
place, however, if pack animals are to be used. In either event 
it should be so located as to provide easy access to whatever 
work is to be done. 

Protection. — After the questions of water, fuel, and accessi- 
bihty have been satisfactorily settled, the one of protection 
should next be considered. For example: Winter camps located 
on north slopes where little sunlight can penetrate through pos- 
sibly heavy timber prove very dreary and uncomfortable. On 
the other hand, summer camps located on bare, exposed south 
slopes are equally uncomfortable. 

When camps must be estabhshed in country where stock 
grazes at large it is always advisable to construct some sort of 
fence about the tents or other equipment. 

Camp Fires. — Location. — The average novice, when he builds 
his first camp fire, does so with absolute disregard of the wind's 
direction and velocity, the nature of the fuel he must use, and 
the amount of fuel he may have at his disposal. The fire should 
be located at a point far enough and in a direction from the 
camp to prevent embers or smoke from blowing into the tents 
or bedding. If the fire is to be cooked over, however, it 
should not be so far away from the dining tent that valuable 
time may be lost in going to and from it. 

Building the Fire. — Small, dry fuel should be placed directly 
on the ground and covered with the coarser fuel, the latter 
being prevented from smothering the blaze by the support of 
stones or logs placed beside the spot selected for the fire. Green 
logs are preferable fcfi' this use and should be laid parallel with 
each other, one on either side of the fire; placed in this position 
they not only serve as a means of support for the fuel but they 
also act as walls for the confinement of the live coals. 

Camp fires should never, in any instance, be built against the 
trunks of large trees or against large logs that will not be com- 
pletely consumed by the time camp is to be moved. Neither 
should they be built in the midst of inflammable material until 
a wide area has been swept off quite clean. 

Fuel Woods. — Dry wood will be found preferable to green 
wood if a quick, hot fire is desired either for heating or cooking. 
Dry heartwood of any of the pines makes good kindling but is 
not satisfactory when used exclusively in camp fires or camp 
stoves; the deposits made by the smoke soon clog a stovepipe, 



MISCELLANEOUS 321 

and this demands frequent attention in the matter of opening 
the pipe. 

Dead aspen (Populus tre7nuloides) , or any of the oaks, hick- 
ories, or junipers, will be found very good for stove wood, as will 
also mesquit, chaparral, dry manzanita and gTeasewood. Dry 
juniper is not a satisfactory fuel for open camp fires; the con- 
stant snapping and cracking frequently throw Hve coals to a 
considerable distance and these may fall on the tents, bedding, 
or other inflammable equipment. 

After a deep bed of live coals has been secured, any of the 
oaks will prove very satisfactory for extended heating purposes. 
The coals of such a fire may be well covered with ashes at night 
and enough of them kept alive to supply considerable heat the 
next morning. 

Care of the Fire. — Regulations concerning camp fires in the 
National Forests are particularly stringent and good care must 
be taken to see that a general conflagration does not result from 
a camp fire. When camp is moved, the fire should be completely 
covered with dirt in order to prevent the escape of any flames or 
hve coals. If water is available, it should be used freely and the 
coals thoroughly drenched, but in any case covering with dirt 
is advisable. 

Six Rules for Prevention of Fires in the Mountains. — The fol- 
lowing six rules for prevention of fires are quoted from page 22, 
U. B., 1915: 

1. Matches. — Be sure your match is out. Break it in two 

before you throw it away. 

2. Tobacco. — Throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stumps 

in the dust of the road and stamp or j^inch out the fire 
before leaving them. Don't throw them into brush, 
leaves, or needles. 

3. Making Camp. — Build a small camp fire. Build it in the 

open, not against a tree or log, or near brush. Scrape 
away the trash from all around it. 

4. Leaving Cam-p. — Never leave a' camp fire, even for a short 

time, without quenching it with water or earth. 

5. Bonfires. — Never build bonfii'es in windy weather or where 

there is the shghtest danger of their escaping from 
control. Don't make them larger than you need. 
G. Fighting Fires. — If you find a fire, try to put it out. If you 
can't, get word of it to the nearest Ignited States forest 



322 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

ranger or State fire warden at once. Keep in touch with 

the rangers. 
Protection of the Public Health. — Unfortunately there appears 
to be a tendency on the part of a certain class of thoughtless 
campers to pay little or no attention to sanitary precautions in 
their own camps or to the welfare of the local residents among 
whom they may be temporarily located. Forest officers, how- 
ever, have definite instructions to see that sanitary measures are 
adopted by the camping pubUc, as will be seen in the following 
regulation appearing on page 29, U. B., 1915: 

Reg. P-4. The follomng acts are prohibited: Having or leaving in 
an exposed or insanitary condition on National Forest lands camp 
refuse or debris of any description, or depositing on National Forest 
lands or being or going thereon and depositing in the streams, lakes, 
or other waters within or bordering upon the National Forests any 
substance or substances which poUute or are liable to cause pollution 
of the said streams, lakes, or waters. 

In explanation of this regulation " The Use Book " goes on 
to say: 

"Every precaution will be taken by forest officers to protect the 
public health. All persons on National Forest lands are liable to 
trespass proceedings if insanitary conditions result from their presence. 
The main danger to be guarded against is that of typhoid fever, re- 
sulting from toilet accommodations which drain to waters used for 
domestic purposes, and from the exposure of refuse of aU kinds to 
flies. In large or permanent camps latrines must be dug in sixitable 
locations remote from the water, and disinfectants shoiild be used 
freely. All camp refuse must be disposed of, either by biu-ying or 
burning. In small temporary camps suitable precautions should be 
observed, and refuse of all kinds must be kept weU away from the 
Avater. The carcasses of all dead animals when they are a menace to 
public health should be buried or burned. ..." 

"Forest officers wiU enforce compUance with Regulation P-4 on the 
part of aU campers, stockmen, permittees, and other persons traveling 
through or occupying National Forest lands." 

CONFUSION OF DIRECTIONS 

This presents about as unpleasant a problem for the field man 
as any he encounters, and since its occurrence is so frequent and 
so common to the beginner in the field service a few general 
suggestions may prove of value. 

When they are obtainable the field man should secure reH.able 
maps of the country in which he is to work. He should make 
a special study of the location of streams, mountain ranges. 



MISCELLANEOUS 323 

roads, trails, settlements, mines, sawmills, and other featm-es 
which may serve as guides by which he may travel. He may 
observe, for example, that the drainage of a particular locahty 
is westward, that main hnes of travel are along valleys or on 
the tops of ridges, that a prominent moiintain top has a certain 
easily remembered location with reference to other and less 
prominent peaks, that north slopes may be steeper than south 
slopes, or vice versa, that certain villages or ranches are located 
at pecuUar or unusual points, and he may, by close observation, 
notice numerous other pertinent facts that may be of great 
value to him at a time when they are especially necessary. 

It seldom happens that maps of this sort are not available, 
but in event they can not be secured, then the field man must 
rely either upon the advice of local settlers or else upon his own 
abihty to reach his destination. It should be remembered that 
the inabihty to travel directly through strange territory is not 
confined strictly to inexperienced travelers; veteran woodsmen 
occasionally " get lost " and sometimes have considerable trouble 
in ascertaining even their approximate location. In such cases, 
however, their confusion is due to carelessness and to only casual 
instead of close observation of their surroundings. 

It is always well to take frequent "back sights" at the coun- 
try gone over. This presents to the traveler views of certain 
landmarks as they will appear on his return trip, and as a result 
he will be able to retrace his former route with less difficulty. 

Upon proper requisition the field man may secure a regula- 
tion Forest Service compass, and if he has one of these along 
he should consult it immediately upon discovering that he has 
been traveling in the wrong direction. On such occasions he 
will invariably have a feeling that the compass may possibly 
be out of order and that it is not working properly, complete 
faith in his own sense of direction may make him unwilling to 
be guided by a mechanical contrivance, and he will follow the 
compass directions with reluctance. At such times there should 
be no doubt as to the reliabihty of the compass. It is true, of 
course, that the instrument may have been damaged by careless 
handhng, and that as a consequence it will fail to work properly, 
but this or a similar contingency is the only one in which the 
compass should be disregarded. 

On days when the sun may be seen a common watch may be 
used as a means of determining the approximate direction in 



324 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

which a person is travehng. The end of the hour-hand is pointed 
toward the sun; a hne projected from the pivot on which the 
hands are hung over a point mid-way between the end of the 
hour-hand and the figure " 12 " will run approximately 
south. ^ 

When " lost " at night the traveler may observe the stars, if 
these are visible, and ascertain his general direction of travel 
from them. A very prominent constellation is Ursa Major, or 
the Big Dipper, consisting of seven stars, each having an indi- 
vidual name and known from the end star in the handle suc- 
cessively as Benetnasch (a white sun), Mizar (white and emerald), 
Alioth (very bright), Megi-ez (yellow), Precda (yellow), Merak 
(greenish white), and Dubhe (yellow). Two of these, Merak 
and Dubhe, on the side of the dipper opposite the handle, are 
in line with the pole-star and are known as " pointers." The 
curved line marked by AUoth, Mizar, and Benetnasch points 
directly toward Arcturus. The pole-star forms the extremity 
of another constellation called Ursa Minor, or the Little Dipper, 
which also consists of seven stars. Another constellation in the 
immediate vicinity of these two consists of five stars of the third 
magnitude arranged somewhat in the shape of the letter M and 
called Cassiopeia. Further east are the Pleiades, six stars in 
number and all visible to the naked eye. Orion is the most 
prominent southern constellation, can best be studied during the 
winter months, and sets at the same time the constellation 
called the Scorpion rises. Another constellation, the Twins, 
appears in the region of the Pleiades. To the east of the Twins 
appears the Lion, consisting of three stars of the second magni- 
tude and one of the first, others in the constellation not being 
easily discerned with the naked eye. 

If neither the sun nor stars can be used in determining direc- 
tion then the traveler must rely upon his general knowledge of 
the section in w^hich he is located. It should be borne in mind 
that in sparsely settled localities the few settlements which do 
occur are found mostly along the watercourses which, conse- 
quentlj^, should be followed rather than crossed. Ordinarily the 
first settler met with will be able to direct the traveler further. 

Ascertaining directions by means of the moss on trees in 
localities where the timber-stand is dense is quite reliable, but 

^ Applicable only in the Northern Hemisphere. 



MISCELLANEOUS 325 

is never a safe guide in sections where a thin stand of timber 
allows air and sunlight to penetrate thoroughly. 

Confusion of directions on a prairie, where it is much more 
hkely to occm* than in timber, may be removed by careful at- 
tention to the manner in which the grass stems lean; prevalent 
southwest winds will eventually cause them to lean to the 
northeast. 

In Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, the Occident ant 
(Pogonomyrmex occidentalis) throws up a mound of coarse sand 
and fine gravel and in nearly every instance leaves an opening 
at the southeast side, presumably in order that the early morning 
sun may warm the runway sooner. Careful observation of a 
group of these mounds wiU assist the traveler in getting his 
bearings. In the same locahties the Thatching ant {Formica 
ruhiginosa) covers its mounds with pine needles, straws, grass 
stems, and small twigs, and also generally leaves an opening at 
the southeast side. This rule is not followed as closely, how- 
ever, as in the case of the Occident ant. 

Quite naturally, the realization that he is lost in strange terri- 
tory confuses the average traveler, and this confusion may extend 
to and so affect his judgment that he may run wildly about in 
a frantic attempt to locate some known landmark and thus 
extricate himself from his dilemma. Under such conditions he 
may strike a road or trail that he has been over, but in his 
confusion is unable to recognize it, and he continues to wander 
about until physical exhaustion overcomes him. 

Such excitement is, of course, wholly uncalled for. If night 
overtakes him he should make no attempt to proceed further, 
but should make the best of matters and wait for daylight; 
this may seem like a waste of time, but, on the contrary, it is the 
best means of saving time. 

If he is accompanied by another person who is familiar with 
the country being traveled over he should not question that 
person's judgment even though it may seem that a contrary 
direction is being followed. 

FASTENINGS 

Knots. — The field man who must be continually packing, sad- 
dhng, tethering animals, raising and lowering articles by means 
of ropes, or using ropes in a number of other ways should be 



326 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

more or less familiar with those knots for which he may have 
the greatest use. Ordinarily, he need not have a general knowl- 
edge of all knots but he should possess a working knowledge of 
most of the simpler ones, and for that reason these are illustrated 
and discussed here. 

In order to simpHfy the subject as much as possible, it will be 
considered as including knots, nooses, hitches, latigo ties, and 
splices. Technical terms will be avoided in so far as this may 
be practicable. 

It is suggested that if the beginner wishes to practice the con- 
struction of the various knots by endeavoring to tie them as 
he refers to the illustrations, he provide himself with a 6-foot 
length of 3^-inch braided cotton Une. This will not twist or 
tangle as badly as twisted line. However, the latter must be 
used while spUces are being studied. If knots or ties are to be 
made in leather he should secure a very pliant piece with which 
to experiment. 

Overhand. — This is the simplest knot tied and its construction 
needs no explanation. It is used at the ends of ropes to prevent 
the strands from untwisting, may be used as a means of mark- 
ing spaces along a Une, or may serve as a check-knot for loops 
of Unes working on others. 

Surgical. — This is used chiefly by surgeons in securing severed 
artery ends and for other purposes where small knots that will 
not sHp are required. It is constructed the same as the over- 
hand except that one end is given an extra turn about the other. 
It may be released by pulling either end in a direction at right 
angles to the series of turns. 

Staffordshire or Tail. — The term " Tait's " knot is taken from 
the name of the surgeon who first employed it. In construc- 
tion it is the same as the surgical knot except that a round turn 
is taken before the latter is tied. It is also loosened the same 
as the surgical knot. 

Square or Reef. — This is another common knot used chiefly in 
fastening loose ends together. Its construction is so simple as 
to require no explanation. 

Combined Surgical and Reef. — The chief advantage of this 
knot over the plain surgical knot is the method by which the 
ends are made fast and which prevents them from slipping. It 
is opened by puUing the loose ends in a direction at right angles 
to the reef. 



Overhand. 



Granny. 



Sheep-shank. 




Surgical. 



Thief. 



Carrick bend. 




Staflfordshire 
or "Tait's." 





Figure 8. 



Double overhand. 




Square or reef. Single sheet bend. Double sheet liend. 



Combined 
surgical and reef. 





Bowline. 



Overhand 
and half hitch. 





Running bowline. BowUne on a bight. 

Fig. 224. — Knots. 



328 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Granny. — At first glance this appears to be identical in con- 
struction with the square or reef, but close observation will reveal 
the fact that in the latter the ends leave the other loop from 
the same side on which they entered it, while in the granny 
they leave from the opposite side. 

Thief. — This also appears to be the same as the square and 
granny knots. However, it will be observed to differ from the 
first in having one loose end at the top and the other at the 
bottom. It differs from the second in that the ends enter and 
leave the knot at the same side. 

Figure 8. — This knot is used chiefly for ornamental purposes, 
being frequently tied in the braid of official caps and uniforms. 
For practical purposes it is no better than the overhand. 

Single Sheet Bend. — In making this the loop is the first part 
to be formed. The loose end is then passed through it, around 
the neck, and back between the loop and itself. The knot will 
not shp if properly constructed and is a very reUable method 
of tying animals by the neck. When used for this purpose the 
loop is constructed far enough back from the end of the rope to 
allow the latter to reach around the animal's neck and fasten 
into the loop. Its chief disadvantage for such use is that it 
may be drawn so tight that it can be opened only by cutting 
the rope. However, this trouble may be avoided if the loose 
end is tied in a draw loop. 

Double Sheet Bend. — The construction of this knot is the 
same as that of the single sheet bend except that the loose end 
encircles the loop twice instead of once, passing beneath itself 
both times. 

Bowline. — This is usually pronounced " bolan." Like the 
single sheet bend it can not slip if properly constructed. The 
loose end is passed through a half hitch in the long end from 
the under side, crosses under the long end, and doubles back 
over itself and through the half hitch from the upper side. 

Running Bowline. — This is constructed the same as a bowhne 
except that a larger noose is provided for. The bowhne may 
be tied about the long end of the line or, if the latter is loose, 
it may be passed through the bowline. The running bowline 
is used where nooses must be opened and closed quickly and 
easily. 

Bowline on a Bight. — The construction of this is sUghtly dif- 
ferent from the other bowlines shown. Owing to the use of a 



MISCELLANEOUS 329 

double line throughout the knot it is much more easily tied. 
If properly constructed the loop wiU not close up. 

Sheep-shank. — The chief use of this knot is in taking up slack 
in a Une. Its regular construction is rather too comphcated to 
explain here, but a simpler and just as effective method is merely 
to turn the half hitches about the loops. 

Carrick Bend. — Like the figure 8 this is used chiefly for orna- 
mental purposes though it may be used in tying hnes together. 
It will not slip if tightened evenly. 

Turk^s Head. — This knot is frequently used at the ends of 
lines to prevent the strands from untwisting. Four incorrect 






Incorrect starts. Correct start. 

Fig. 225. — Turk's head. 

methods of starting it are shown. The fifth illustration shows 
the correct method. After the strands have been made fast under 
each other as shown here, the ends are disposed of as follows: 
No. 1 passes around outside of 3, upward between itself and 3, 
and out through the triangle formed by 1, 2, and 3; 2 passes 
around outside of 1, upward between itself and 1, and out 
through the triangle; 3 passes around outside of 2, upward 
between itself and 2, and out through the triangle. After the 
loiot has been drawn tight the loose ends should be cut away 
close to it. Turk's heads are tied in Unes of more than three 
strands by following the same method of procedure. 

Overhand and Half Hitch. — The chief advantage of this knot 
lies in the ease with which it may be finished after the first 
part has been tied and while there is great draft on the hnes. 
After the overhand has been tied a half hitch in one end is 
taken about a loop in the other. It may be completely released 
by pulling the loop backward through the half hitch. It is 
especially adapted to fastening down a grain pack. 

Double Overhand. — This may be tied in rope but is especially 
suitable for tying leather and is frequently used at the end of a 
pair of reins. The two loops are first formed, the short end of 
the one to the left being toward the operator, and that of the 
the one to the right. in the opposite direction. The end of the 



330 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

first is then passed to the right around the second and forward 
through the loop formed by itself. The end of the second is 
passed to the left around the first and out rearward through 
its own loop. 

Nooses. — Hangman's Noose. — This noose derives its name 
from the fact that it is frequently used in the execution of crim- 
inals. When used for this purpose the knot, usually consisting 
of nine turns, is placed at the left side of the neck against the 
ear. Being quite stiff it suddenly forces the head to the right 
at the moment the weight of the body comes against the noose 




Hangman's. 




Halter. Slip. 

Fig. 226. — Nooses. 

and two or more of the neck joints are separated. When i)rop- 
erly constructed it also closes quickly and becomes tighter as 
the weight remains suspended from it. It is also a favorite 
method used by horseman in disposing of long dangling ends 
of saddle-strings or in fastening up halter-ropes that will not 
be used for some time. 

The turns begin at the noose after the long inner loop has 
been laid along the other side of the noose. The end is secured 
by being passed through the end of the inner loop. If it is to 
be constructed in such a manner as to remain open an overhand 
knot must be tied at either side immediately before the first turn. 

Halter Noose. — This noose is made by passing the loose end 
of a rope through an overhand knot tied at a point far enough 
from the end to allow the noose to encircle an animal's neck. 
The end is also tied in an overhand knot which prevents it from 
pulling through the first one. The noose can not be closed by 



MISCELLANEOUS 



331 



draft on the long end of the rope, but the knots may be drawn 
so tight that it will be necessary to cut the rope before the 
noose can be opened. 

Sli-p Noose. — For use where it must close by draft this noose 
is quite reUable. However, a very stiff rope can hardly be tied 
so the overhand will not open when the draft is applied. This 
trouble may be remedied by giving the loose end a half-hitch 
about itself just to the rear of the overhand. 

Hitches. — Half Hitch. — Practically all of the more compli- 
cated knots include some use of the half-hitch or its more elab- 




Clove hitch. 



Clove and a half. 




2 half hitches Round tun 

and 2 half 

hitohea 



Anchor hitch Mooring hitch Telephone hitch 

Fig. 227.— Hitches. 



orate formation as a clove hitch. In constructing it, the hne 
is gi-asped in both hands held with the palms downward, the 
thumbs toward each other. The left palm, is then tm-ned up- 
ward and the tips of the thumbs are brought together. The 
left thumb may be raised from the line and lowered on the 



length which crosses just before it. In this way the hitch may 
be held with the left hand while the right is used otherwise, as 
may be required. 

Clove Hitch. — Like the preceding hitch this one plays an 
important part in the construction of a number of the more 
compHcated hitches. It will not sHp when properly constructed 
and is therefore especially convenient in fastening tent ropes 
and in making ropes fast otherwise. It is constructed of two 
half hitches, one in either hand, the inner edge of the one to 
the right being passed under the corresponding edge of the one 
at the left and across to the opposite side. This permits the 
hitches to coincide, and the clove may then be dropped down 
over the tent-peg or other object to which the rope is to be tied. 

Clove and a Half. — This is used for the same purposes as the 
clove and is constructed in a similar manner except that one 
more half hitch is included. 

Timber Hitch. — This is made simply by taking a haK hitch 
about the long end of a line and fastening the loose end by 
I)assing it over, around, and under the rope to the rear of the 
half hitch so it rests against the article about which the timber 
hitch is taken. It is used as a means of raising logs, timbers, 
or similar articles, or may be used in securing them to others. 
It is prevented from slipping by the pressure of the rope against 
the loose end passed under it, and can be easily loosened by 
releasing the draft on the long end. This allows the half hitch 
to be sUpped backward and relieves it of its own pressure. 

Timber and Half Hitch. — The most common use of this tie 
is in raising vertical timbers. The timber hitch not only pro- 
vides greater binding capacity but also fastens the end of the 
half hitch. To release it, slack the long end of the line. This 
allows the timber hitch to be removed and the half hitch can 
then be taken off. 

Overhand Sling. — This is for use in raising boxes, barrels, and 
similar articles. It consists of an overhand knot passed about 
the article to be raised, one length of the knot passing under it 
and the other two about the sides. Removal of the draft 
releases it. 

Bowline Sling. — This may be used for the same purposes as 
the overhand sling and is especially adapted to raising articles 
that are not to be turned or rolled. Two half hitches are taken 
about the article and the loose ends are tied together in a bow- 



MISCELLANEOUS 333 

line. Where great weight is likely to pull the bowline tight it 
should be tied with a draw loop. To release the sling, loosen the 
bowline. 

Rolling Hitch. — This consists of a clove hitch with the ends 
passed under a turn taken between the two sides of the clove. 
To release it loosen one end. This opens the turn and permits 
the other end to be removed. 

Mooring Hitch. — As its name indicates this hitch is used in 
mooring vessels to wharves. At first glance it may appear to 
be the same as the rolKng hitch. However, its construction dif- 
fers in having one side of the clove bound by the turn twice 
instead of once as in the roUing hitch. To release it loosen 
the side of the clove that is bound only once. This opens the 
clove and removes the pressure from both places on the other 
side. 

Two Half Hitches. — This consists merely of a clove hitch 
taken about the long end of a Une. If there is reason to believe 
it may be drawn so tightly as to be released only with difficulty 
the second haK hitch should be made with a draw loop. If the 
article to which it is tied is very smooth or if it tapers consid-' 
crably the loop may slip along. 

Round Turn and Two Half Hitches. — The construction of this 
is similar to that of two half hitches except that the line is 
given a turn about the object to be tied. Its advantage over 
the two half hitches lies in the fact that the turn prevents the 
hitch from sUpping unless an article has a very great amount 
of taper. It is released bj^ removal of the second half hitch. 

Anchor Hitch. — This is constructed the same as the preced- 
ing hitch, except that after the loose end has been passed about 
the line it is then passed through the turn before the second 
half hitch is taken about the line. To release it remove the 
second half hitch and puU the hne downward as if starting a 
second turn. This loosens the turn already taken and permits 
the loose end to be drawn backward through it. 

Telephone Hitch. — This is for use in dragging poles or timbers 
lengthwise. It is constructed by passing the ends of a doubled 
line about the timber from opposite directions and tying the 
ends together in an overhand knot. To release it pull the 
overhand backward and open it. 

Cat^s Paw. — Two lines may be used in this hitch. One is 
given a round turn about an object and the ends are then tied 



334 HANDBOOK FOK RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

together. The other is passed through the turn a number of 
times and made fast by passing the loose end through the turn 
about itself. To release it remove the draft and withdraw the 
loose end. 

Blackwall Hitch. — This hitch is used in fastening a line into 
a hook and consists merely of a half hitch taken about the 
hook shank, the line crossing itself in the bend of the hook. 
Removal of the draft will release it. 

Latigo Ties. — Overhand. — This tie is shown in Fig. 228. It is 
very simple in construction, is easily apphed, and is a widely used 




Clove. Double half hitch Modification of 

with draw loop. double half hitch. 

Fig. 228. — Latigo, ties. 



method of securing a latigo to the saddle ring. Its release is 
facihtated if a draw loop is used. 

Double Half Hitch. — This is probably the most widely used 
of all latigo ties. It consists of two half hitches being taken 
through the saddle ring and, unless the latigo leather is unusu- 
ally hard and stiff, will seldom or never slip. Like the overhand 
it may be removed with less difficulty if the draw loop is used. 

Clove Hitch. — This tie is used about as often as the overhand 



MISCELLANEOUS 335 

but, unless the latigo leather is very soft and pHant, will some- 
times shp and allow the cinch to work loose. It should also 
be tied with a draw loop. 

Splices. — Sphces in rope may be either permanent or tem- 
porary. They may be suppUed for the purpose of fastening 
two ropes together or they may be used to form eyes through 
which other ropes or eyes are passed. 

1. Permanent Splices. — A general method of making permanent 
sphces is sho-^Ti in Fig. 229. To do this the strands of each 
rope end are untwisted and if the splice is to work through 
tackle blocks a portion of each strand may have to be cut away 




Fig. 229. — Permanent eye splice. 

in order to reduce thfe diameter of the splice. A splice 8 inches 
long is sufficient for 3^-inch rope. Larger rope should have 
proportionately longer splices. 

The actual work of spUcing begins after each strand of one 
rope has been passed through between two strands of the other 
and the tightly twisted portions of each have been brought 
close together. 

One strand of the sohd rope is raised each time and a strand 
of the untwisted rope is passed beneath it, the rear strand always 
beijig brought up -first and drawn tight. The splice should 
terminate with a loose end projecting from each of the rope's 
three sides. These are cut off close to the rope and the splice 
is then rolled smooth and even. 

The entire process will require considerable practice before it 
can be successfully followed, but a careful study of Fig. 229 
should prove of material assistance to the beginner. 

2. Tevi-porary Splices. — ^These are used where spliced ropes must 
be taken apart frequently and may be made in a number of 
different ways. The chief temporary sphces used are as follows : 

Hawser Bend. — This consists of a loop in the end of one rope 
pas ed through a second loop in the other. The loose ends are 



336 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

given a haK hitch about and lashed to the respective ropes as 
shown in Fig. 230. 

Clove and Overhand Splice. — This is also illustrated in the 
same figure with the hawser bend. 

It consists of a clove hitch slipped over the end of another 
rope bearing an overhand knot at its end. 

Toggle Splice. — Fig. 230 also shows how this spUce is con- 
structed. A toggle pin or stick is fastened into the end of one 



Hawser bend. Clove and overhand. 




Toggle. Double eye Leather spUce. 

splice. 
Fig. 230. — Splices. 

rope and is passed through an eye splice m the other. The eye 
splice should be only long enough to permit the toggle pin to 
pass through beside the rope which carries it. 

Double Eye Splice . — Ropes fastened together by means of this 
splice are each equipped with an eye as shown in Fig. 230. 
Such a splice is released by bending the rounded ends of the 
eyes toward each other. 

Leather Splice. — Leather straps to be spUced together are both 
sht at one end. Each strap is then passed through the sUt in 
the other, as shown in Fig. 230, and drawn tight. 

Eye Splices. — A very common but improper method of start- 
ing an eye sphce is shown in Fig. 231. By following such a 
method the strands of the loose end all start into the sphce along 
one side of the rope. This leaves a very unsatisfactory con- 
nection that does not fit closely into the splice. The proper 
method of starting the spHce is also shown in Fig. 231, where the 
three strands each enter the splice at different sides. This may 
leave one strand rather higher than the others at the end of 
the sphce but the eye is substantially made and is generally 
satisfactory. After the strands have been started they are 
passed through between the others the same as in splicing two 



MISCELLANEOUS 



337 



Topes together. The same method is also followed when one 
rope is to be sphced into the side of another. Except in the 
matter of keeping up the extra strands ropes having more than 




Incorrect method of starting an eye splice. 




Correct method. 
Fig. 231. 

three strands are spUced the same as those having only three. 
Temporary eye sphces may be made the same as the hawser 
bend. This same sphce is frequently used in wire cables. 

Flat Ends in Leather. — This method of fastening the ends of 
leather strands is employed chiefly in reatas and similar leather 
articles and presents a flat, compact end that does not carry 
a large, inconvenient knot. As the illustration shows, the lower 
strand of the series is spUt each time, remaining strands, regard- 




PiG. 232. — Flat end for leather strands. 



less of their number, are passed through it, after which each in 
its turn is spHt in a similar manner as it reaches the bottom of 
the series. Finally, at the extreme end in a series of four strands, 



338 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

only the second and third strands from the top are passed through 
the bottom strand, thus permitting two strands to emerge from 
each side of the flat end. If six or eight strands are used then 
three or four strands, respectively, are passed through the slit. 
Or, as is often done, all the remaining strands may be passed 
through the slit and the fiat end will still be left flat and compact. 

FIELD WORK IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS i 

Field work in the Philippine Islands demands different equip- 
ment than that required in the United States. This is due to a 
number of facts, chief among which are: (1) The climate is 
warmer and damper; (2) travehng through the forests is done on 
foot rather than by horse; (3) men instead of animals are em- 
ployed in packing; (4) there is no lack of laborers; (5) the 
days are about twelve hours long the year round. 

Rains occur almost daily between June and December, but 
as a rule continue only a short time and generally occur after 
noon. During this season, however, typhoons, or hard rains 
with severe winds lasting from three to seven days may be 
expected. Extreme heat generally prevails throughout May. 
The chief trouble experienced during the rainy season is keeping 
equipment and suppHes in good condition and preventing them 
from becoming moldy. 

A Ught tarpauhn may be carried, but is not absolutely neces- 
sary, as the native woodsmen possess a skill in erecting shelters 
of rattan or hejuco leaves which renders them almost rain-proof. 
These shelters may be constructed in a very few minutes. 

Clothing should consist of strong but light trousers, hght 
underwear, and a medium weight woolen shirt such as is used 
in the army. Even on short trips the equipment should include 
one or two extra suits of underwear, as the climate induces con- 
siderable perspiration and the traveler may become chilly late 
in the evening unless dry underwear is available. Several pairs 
of medium weight woolen socks should also be included in the 
outfit and it is always weU to carry an extra pair of shoes, pref- 
erably of canvas with substantial leather soles. Rubber boots 
or shoes are to be avoided an account of the warm climate. 
Hats should be of the wide-brimmed felt variety and as light 



1 Contributed by Forest Ranger Wayne Russell. 



MISCELLANEOUS 339 

A woolen blanket on an ordinary army cot is sufficient for 
bedding, but the entire bed should be covered with a good mos- 
quito bar. Very few poisonous snakes are encountered. Leeches 
are found in most localities and in general appearance resemble 
those of the States, but they inhabit wet grass instead of stag- 
nant pools. They seldom appear in the lower altitudes during 
the dry seasons, but may be found as low as 500 feet above 
sea-level during the rainy season. The natives of the Province 
of Tayabas, which is the worst infected district, carry soap or 
grease with them on extended trips and rub this on the leeches 
if any attach themselves to the travelers' legs or feet. This 
causes them to drop off. Persons wearing shoes and leggings 
are seldom troubled with this pest. 

Deer and wild hogs are numerous and several varieties of wild 
doves provide excellent fresh meat. Chickens and eggs may 
be procured at most villages. The former are transported alive 
by the native packers, are " staked out " at night by being 
tied to a stake or bush, and are killed and dressed as 
required. 

A fern called paco and a rattan blossom known as palasan 
may be found in most sections, and both are edible. Very little 
of the wild fruit is fit to eat. Tame fruit, such as pineapples 
and bananas, should not be eaten at a time when great hunger 
is experienced, or cramps or other internal disorders will inva- 
riably result. Wild honey occurs in abundance, but is found 
suspended from a large branch or tree-trunk rather than in 
hollow limbs and trunks. 

Rice and dried fish constitute the principal foods, and after 
the traveler once becomes accustomed to the native method of 
preparation these prove quite palatable to him. All foods should 
be eaten while warm and the use of canned foods should be 
avoided whenever this is possible. 

Few cooking utensils are necessary, since the native packers 
can soon produce cups, saucers, plates, dippers, and other similar 
articles from a bamboo called cmia bojo. Rice and such foods 
are prepared in earthen jars. The traveler maj^, if he prefers, 
carry a limited number of dishes for his own use, but the packers 
prefer to eat from leaves. Coffee may be prepared .by pouring 
boiling water into a flannel sack partly filled w^th ground coffee. 
Bad water will be found quite frequently, and for that reason 
a canteen of good drinking water should always be carried. 



340 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Cigarettes should be carried for the packers and they are always 
willing to have their pay reduced accordingly. 

Quinine and disinfectants should always be carried in the 
pack, as should also a good cramp remedy. A few bandages 
might also be included, but beyond this little else is required 
in the way of medicinal equipment. 

The packers work singly or in pairs and the pack is suspended 
from a pole known as a pingon, which rests on the packers' shoul- 
ders as the pack is carried between them. Packs for one man 
may weigh from twenty-five to forty pounds; for two men from 
one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five pounds. Guides, 
or guias, expect to carry their own camp outfit. 

The native packers have more respect for and are more def- 
erential to travelers who require them to do all the v/ork. They 
should be reprimanded only when this is absolutely imperative, 
and there should be no reference made to the matter later. 
Their attention and respect may be obtained only by firmness 
and dignity and no familiarity from them or the interpreter 
should be tolerated. Neither should implicit confidence be 
placed in the latter unless previous experience and acquaintance 
with him justify it. 



APPENDIX 

ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTSi 

U. S. Forest Service 
District Number 1. — Headquarters Missoula, Montana 



2.— 


Denver, Colorado 


3.— 


Albuquerque, New Mexico 


4.— 


Ogden, Utah 


5. — 


San Francisco, California 


6. — 


Portland, Oregon 


7.— 


Washington, D. C. 



FOREST SUPERVISORS' HEADQUARTERSi 



State 


Dist. 
No. 


Name of 
Forest 


Supervisors' Headquarters 


Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 


6 
6 ' 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 

7 
7 

5 
5 
5 
6 
5 


Chugach 

Tongass 

Apac*ie. 

Chiricahua. . . . 

Coconino 

Coronado 

Crook 

Dixie 

Manzano 

Kaibab 

Prescott 

Sitgreaves 

Tonto 

Tusayan 

Arkansas 

Ozark 

Angeles 

Cahfomia 

Cleveland 

Crater 

Eldorado 


Ketchikan 
Ketchikan 

Springerville 

Portal 

Flagstaff 

Tucson 

Saflord 

St. George, Utah 

Albuquerque, New Mexico 

Kanab, Utah 

Prescott 

Snowflake 

Roosevelt 

WilHams 

Hot Springs 
Harrison 

Los Angeles 
Willows 
Escondido 
Medford, Oregon 
Placerville 



Compiled from The Use Book. 1915. 
341 



342 HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

FOREST SUPERVISORS' HEADQUARTERS {Continued) 



State 



California 



Colorado . 



Florida . 
Idaho . . 



Dist. 
No. 



Name of 
Forest 



Inyo .... 
Klamath , 



Modoc 

Mono 

Monterey 

Plmnas 

Santa Barbara. 

Sequoia 

Shasta 

Sierra 

Siskiyou 

Stanislaus 

Tahoe 

Trinity 



Arapaho 

Battlement. . . 
Cochetopa . . . . 

Colorado 

Dvirango 

Gimnison. . . . 

Hayden 

Holy Cross. . . 

La Sal 

Leadville. . . . 
Montezuma . . 

Pike 

Rio Grande. . 

Routt 

San Isabel . . . 
San Juan .... 

Sopris 

Uncompahgre 
White River. . 



Supervisors' Headquarters 



Florida. 



Cache 

Caribou 

ChaUis . 

Clearwater. . . . 
Cceur d'Alene 



Bishop 

Yreka 

Red Bluflf 

Alturas 

GardnerviUe, Nevada 

Big Sur 

Quincy 

Santa Barbara 

Hot Springs 

Sisson 

Northfork 

Grant's Pass, Oregon 

Sonora 

Nevada City 

WeaverviUe 

Hot Sulphur Springs 

CoUbran 

Saguache 

Fort Collins 

Durango 

Gunnison 

Encampment, Wyoming 

Glenwood Springs 

Moab, Utah 

Leadville 

Mancos 

Denver 

Monte Vista 

Steamboat Springs 

Westchflfe 

Pagosa Springs 

Aspen 

Delta 

Meeker 

Pensacola 

Boise 

Logan, Utah 
MontpeUer 
ChaUis 
Orofino 
Coeur d'Alene 



APPENDIX 343 

FOREST SUPERVISORS' HEADQUARTERS {Continued) 



State 



Dist. 
No. 



Name of 
Forest 



Supervisors' Headquarters 



Idaho . 



Michigan . 
Minnesota 

Montana . 



Nebraska . 
Nevada. . 



Idaho 

Kanilisu 

Lemhi 

Minidoka 

Nezperce 

Palisade 

Payette 

Pend Oreille. . . 

St. Joe 

Salmon 

Sawtooth 

Selway 

Targhee 

Weiser 

Kansas 

Michigan 

Mumesota . . . , 
Superior 

Absaroka . . . . , 
Beartooth. . . . , 
Beaverhead . . 

Bitterroot 

Blackfeet. ... 

Cabinet 

Custer 

Deerlodge. ... 

Flathead 

Gallatin 

Helena 

Jefferson 

Kootenai .... 
Lewis & Clark 

Lolo 

Madison , 

Missoula , 

Sioux 

Nebraska. ... 

Eldorado .... 



McCaU 

Newport, Washington 

Mackay 

Oakley 

Grangeville 

St. Anthony 

Emmett 

Sandpoint 

St. Maries 

Salmon 

HaUey 

KoosMa 

St. Anthony 

Weiser 

Garden City 

East Tawas 



Ely 

Livingston 

Billings 

DiUon 

Missoula 

KaUspell 

Thompson Falls 

MUes City 

Anaconda 

Kalispell 
' Bozeman 
I Helena 

Great Falls 

Libby 

Chouteau 

Missoula 

Sheridan 

Missoula 

Camp Crook, South Dakota 

Halsey 

Placerville, CaUfornia 



344 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 
FOREST SUPERVISORS' HEADQUARTERS (Continued) 



State 



Dist. 

No. 



Name of 
Forest 



Supervisors' Headquarters 



Nevada. 



New Mexico . . 



North Dakota 
Oklahoma . . . . 
Oregon 



Porto Rico. .\ . 
South Dakota 



Humboldt. 

Inyo 

Mono 

Nevada. . . . 

Ruby 

Santa Rosa , 

Tahoe 

Toiyabe. . . 



Alamo 

Carson 

Chiricaliua . . . 

Datil 

Gila 

Lincohi 

Manzano .... 
Santa Fe . . . . 



Dakota . 



Wichita. 



Cascade. . 
Crater. . . . 
Deschutes. 
Fremont . . 
Klamath. . 
Malheur . . 
Minam. . . 
Ochoco. . . 
Oregon. . . 
Santiam . . 
Siskiyou. . 
Siuslaw . . . 
Umatilla . . 
Umpqua . . 
WaUowa . . 
Wenaha. . 
Whitman . 

LuquiUo . . 



Black Hills. 
Harney .... 
Sioux 



Gold Creek 

Bishop, California 

GardnerviUe 

Ely 

Deeth 

Paradise 

Nevada City, California 

Austin 

Alamogordo 

Taos 

Portal, Arizona 

Magdalena 

Silver City 

Capitan 

Albuquerque 

Santa Fe 

Camp Crook, South Dakota 

Cache 

Eugene 

Medford 

Bend 

Lakeview 

Yreka, CaMfomia 

John Day 

WaUowa 

PrinevtUe 

Portland 

Albany 

Grant's Pass 

Eugene 

Pendleton 

Roseburg 

Wallowa 

Walla WaUa, Washington 

Sumpter 



Deadwood 
Custer 
Camp Crook 



APPENDIX 345 

FOREST SUPERVISORS' HEADQUARTERS (Continued) 



State 



Dist. 
No. 



Name of 
Forest 



Supervisors' Headquarters 



Utah. 



Washington. 



Wyoming . 



Ashley 

Cache 

Dixie 

Fillmore 

Fisklake 

La Sal 

Manti 

Minidoka 

PoweU 

Sevier 

Uinta . 

Wasatch 

Chelan 

Columbia 

ColviUe 

Kaniksu 

Okanogan 

Olympic 

Rainier 

Snoqualmie. . . 
Washington. . . 

Wenaha 

Wenatchee . . . . 

Ashley 

Bighorn 

Bonneville . . . . 

Bridger 

Caribou 

Hayden 

ISIedicine Bow 

Palisade 

Shoshone 

Targhee 

Teton 

Washakie 

Wyoming 



Vernal 

Logan 

St. George 

Richfield 

Salina 

Moab 

Ephraim 

Oakley, Idaho 

Escalante 

Panguitch 

Provo 

Salt Lake City 

Chelan 

Portland, Oregon 

Repubhc 

Newport 

Okanogan 

Olympia 

Tacoma 

Seattle 

Bellingham 

WaUaWaUa 

Leavenworth 

Vernal, Utah 

Sheridan 

Lander 

Pinedale 

IVIontpeUer, Idaho 

Encampment 

Laramie 

St. Anthony, Idaho 

Cody 

St. Anthony, Idaho 

Jackson 

Lander 

Afton 



346 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 
LANDS ACQUIRED UNDER THE WEEKS LAWi 



State and Area 


Headquarters 


Georgia: 




Georgia area 


Blue Ridge 


Savannah (South) 


Clayton 


New Hampshire: 




White Mountain 


Gorham 


North CaroUna: 




Mount Mitchell 


Marion 


Nantahala 


Andrews 


Pisgah 


Asheville 


Savannah (North) 


Highlands 


South Carolina: 




Savannah (South) 


Clayton, Georgia 


Tennessee: 




Cherolsee 


Etowah 


Smoky Mountain 


Townsend 


Unaka 


Johnson City 


White Top (part) 


Abingdon, Virginia 


Virginia: 




Massanutten 


Woodstock 


Natiu-al Bridge 


Buena Vista 


Potomac (part) 


Woodstock 


Shenandoah (part) 


Harrisonburg 


White Top (part) 


Abingdon 


West Virginia: 




Monongahela 


Elkins 


Potomac (part) 


Woodstock, Virginia 


Shenandoah (part) 


Harrisonburg, Virginia 



1 Compiled from The Use Book, 1915. 

WEIGHTS 
AVOIRDUPOIS 
Used in weighing practically all heavy articles. 



27.34375 Grams = 1 Dram 


16 


Drams = 1 Oimce 


16 


Ounces = 1 Pound 


14 


Poimds = 1 Stone (An EngUsh measure of weight and 




used chiefly in reference to the weight 




of a person.) 


100 


Pounds = 1 Himdred weight (Cwt.) 


20 


Cwts. = 1 Ton 


2240 


Pounds = 1 Long Ton 


NOTE.- 


— 1 poimd Avoirdupois = 1.21528 poimds Apothecaries' or 


Troy weight. 



APPENDIX 347 



TROY 

Used in weighing precious metals and stones. 

3 . 2 Grains = 1 Carat (K) 

24 Grains = 1 Pennyweight (Dwt) 

20 Dwts = 1 Ounce 

12 Ounces = 1 Pound 

APOTHECARIES' 
Used in weighing medicines and drugs. 

20 Grains = 1 Scruple 

3 Scruples = 1 Dram 

8 Drams = 1 Ounce 

12 Oimces = 1 Poimd 

MEASURES 
SURVEYORS' 
Used in measuring lands. 

LINEAR 

7.92 Inches = 1 Link 
100 ' Links = 1 Chain (Gunter's) 
80 Chains = 1 Mile (Land) 

SQUARE 

10 Sq. Chams = 1 Acre (A) 
640 Acres = 1 Section 

LONG MEASURE 

Used in measuring distances or lengths. 



6 Points 


= 1 Line 






12 Lines 


= 1 Inch 






3 Inches 


= 1 Pahn 






3 Pahns 


= 1 Span, or 9 Inches 






4 Inches 


= 1 Hand 






3 Hands 


= 1 Foot, or 12 Inches 






3 Feet 


= 1 Yard 






2 Yards 


= 1 Fathom 






5 3^ Yards 


= 1 Rod (Also known as "Perch' 


• and ' 


'Pole.") 


40 Rods 


= 1 Furlong, or J^-Mile, Land 






520 Rods 


= 1 Mile, Land, or 5,280 Feet 






3 Miles 


= 1 League 







Note. — A Knot, or Nautical or Sea Mile, or a Geographical Mile 
= 6,080.27 Feet. 



348 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 
SQUARE MEASURE 

Used in measuring surfaces. 

144 Sq. Inches = 1 Sq. Foot 

9 Sq, Feet = 1 Sq. Yard 

30.25 Sq. Yards = 1 Sq. Rod 

160 Sq. Rods = 1 Acre (10 Sq. Chains) 

640 Acres = 1 Section 

CUBIC MEASURE 

Used in measuring bodies having length, breadth and thickness. 

1728 Cu. Inches = 1 Cu. Foot 
24.75 Cu. Feet = 1 Perch, a measure of stone 16 3^ feet long, IJ^ 
feet wide and 1 foot thick. 
27 Cu. Feet = 1 Cu. Yard, generally considered a reasonable 
load of sand or gravel for a two-horse team. 
128 Cu. Feet = 1 Cord, a measure of wood 8 feet long, 4 feet 
high and 4 feet wide. 

DRY MEASURE 

Used in measuring vegetables, grain, etc. 

2 Pints = 1 Quart 

8 Quarts = 1 Peck, or 2 Gallons 

4 Pecks = 1 Bushel, or 2150 . 42 Cu. Inches per "struck " or '* stricken" 
or leveled bushel. The "cone" of a "heaped" 
btishel is not less than 6 inches high and this measure 
= 1 M struck bushels. 

LIQUID MEASURE 

Used in measuring liquids. 

4 Gills = 1 Pint (Pt.) 

2 Pints = 1 Quart (Qt.) 

4 Quarts = 1 Gallon (Gal.) 

32 Gallons = 1 Barrel (Bbl.) (In most localities) 

2 Barrels = 1 Hogshead 
2 Hogsheads = 1 Butt or Pipe 

2 Butts = 1 Tun 

APOTHECARIES' OR WINE MEASURE 

Used in measuring liquid medicines, wines, etc. 

60 Minims (M) = 1 Fluid Dram (f 3 ) 

8 Drams = 1 Fluid Ounce (f § ) 

16 Ounces = 1 Pint (O) 

8 Pints = 1 Gallon (Cong : Abbreviation for Congius) 



APPENDIX 349 

SPOON AND CUP MEASUREMENTS 

This table gives only approximate amounts of medicines con- 
tained in teaspoons, tablespoons, and cups. It should be borne 
in mind that these articles may vary in size and that this table 
has reference only to those of average size. Liquids are meas- 
ured in drops, minims, drams, and fluid ounces; powders are 
measured in grains, drams, and ounces. 



1 


Drop 




= 1 Minim 


60 


Minims or Drops 




= 1 Dram 


1 


Dram 




= 1 Teaspoonful 


4 


Drams 




= 1 Tablespoonful 


1 


Drop 




= 1 Grain 


60 


Grains, Minims or 


Drops 


= 1 Dram 


8 


Drams 




= 1 Fluid Ounce 


]4 Flxiid Ounce 




= 1 Tablespoonful 


16 


Flmd Ounces 




= IPint 


1 


Pint 




= 2 Cups 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF GRAIN, HAY, SEED, 
AND VEGETABLES 

Local conditions, are often responsible for local acceptance of 
weights and measures of hay and grain that are not standard 
elsewhere. Thus, in Kansas and other portions of the middle 
West, where climatic conditions are more favorable to its pro- 
duction, corn is often measured " by the ear," 120 average size 
ears constituting a bushel. But in most parts of the South, 
where corn is generally of smaller ears or inferior quaUty, 125 
and in some instances 130 ears are accepted as a bushel. 

Eighty ears of selected corn constitute a bushel in the lower 
Missouri vaUey. 

Two cubic feet of ear corn will make about one bushel when 
shelled. 

Wheat is often " tested " and sold by " test." The standard 
bushel of wheat weighs 60 pounds, although a test may show 
that it weighs considerably more or less per 2150.42 cubic inches. 
The testing machine consists of a specially constructed scale 
which shows the weight of a given quantity, and the weight of 
a bushel of such grain is then determined from the figures thus 
secured. 

Hay is sold by measure or weight. Loose hay varies in bulk, 
but when moderately well packed averages about 500 cubic 



350 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

feet per ton. From 28 to 34 bales of alfalfa constitute a ton 
among buyers and sellers in the West, and from 30 to 33 bales 
of timothy or clover are considered a ton in nearly all parts of 
the South and Southeast, although in some sections of the 
South 16 bales of timothy or clover weigh a ton. 

A bushel, as the term is used in the following table, contains 
2150.42 cubic inches or approximately 1.24 cubic feet, and fills a 
cube approximately 12.91 inches in each dimension or a cylinder 
8 inches deep and 183^ inches in diameter. It is unfortunate 
that the various States have not adopted a standard measure for 
different commodities, but this lack of uniformity is doubtless 
justified by difference in local conditions. The following table 
however will be found apphcable to most sections: 

Pounds 
Commodity per 

Bushel 

Alfalfa seed 60 

Barley, whole 48 

Beans, Uma 56 

Beans, navy 60 

Beets 55 

Blue grass seed, Kentucky 14 

Brome grass seed 14 

Broom com seed 46 

Buckwheat 50-52 

Canada field peas 60 

Cane seed • 50 

Clover seed, all varieties 60 

Com, field or Indian, ears 70 

Com, field or Indian, sheUed 56 

Com, sweet 46 

Cow peas 60 

Emmer seed 40 

Flax seed 56 

Hemp seed 44 

Johnson grass seed 25 

Kafiar corn • 56 

Meadow fescue seed 24 

Millet seed, common and German 50 

Millet seed, Himgarian 48 

Millet seed, Japanese 35 

MiUet seed, Siberian 50 

Oat grass seed, tall 14 

Oats 32 

Onion sets, bottom 32 

Onion sets, top 28 

Orchard grass seed 14 

Peanuts 22 



APPENDIX 



351 



Pounds 

Commodity per 

Biishel 

Peas, garden, wrinkled 56 

Potatoes, Irish 60 

Potatoes, sweet 50 

Rape 60 

Red top grass seed 14 

Rye 56 

Rye grass seed, Italian 24 

Rye grass seed, perennial 24 

Sheep fescue 14 

Sorghimi seed 45 

Soy beans 60 

Speltz 40 

Sunflower seed, Russian 24 

Timothy seed 45 

Turnips 55 

Vetch, hairy 60 

Vetch, spring 60 

Wheat 60 



PER CENT MEASUREMENT OF GRADES 



The grade, or inclination, of roads, trails, and railroads is usu- 
ally expressed in per cent and is determined by the relation of 
the perpendicular distance to 
the horizontal distance as sho\NTi 
in the accompanying illustra- 
tion. It will be observed that 
although there is a definite re- 
lation between the degrees and 
the per cent of a grade, these 
are two separate quantities. 
A 20 per cent grade equals a ver- 
tical angle of approximately 11 
degrees, but a vertical angle of 
45 degrees, or a rise of 100 feet 
in a horizontal distance of 100 
feet, which equals a 100 per cent 

grade, is not a perpendicular, as might at first be supposed, 
page 354, Appendix. 

A very common and wholly inexcusable error often made by 
amateur road- or trail-builders is to assume that a 3 per cent 
grade, for instance, is a rise of 3 inches in a horizontal distance 
of 12 inches. Such a grade is of course a 25 per cent grade. 



^ 


^ 


X 


*v ''V 


'o/^v.^ '«\ 





100 Feet 

Fig. 233. — Per cent grade. 



See 



352 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 
MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS 



Commodity 



Weight in Pounds 



Average 
per M. Ft. 



Ash (lumber)^ 

Brick,^ soft 

Brick, hard 

Brick, pressed 

Cast iron 

Cast steel 

Cement,^ natural 

Cement, Portland 

Charcoal, oak 

Charcoal, pine 

Coal, anthracite, loose 

Coal, bituminous, loose. . . . 

Coke, loose 

Dirt, loose, dry loam 

Dirt, packed, dry loam . . . . 

Dirt, loose, wet loam 

Dirt, packed, wet loam. . . . 

Feldspar 

FUnt 

Gneiss, soUd 

Gneiss, crushed 

Granite, solid 

Granite, crushed 

Gravel 

Hemlock (lumber) 

Hickory (lumber) 

Ice 

Lead 

Limestone, sohd 

Limestone, crushed 

Maple (lumber) 

Marble, soUd 

Marble, crushed 

Oak (lumber) black 

Oak (lumber) Uve 

Oak (lumber) red 

Oak (lumber) white 

Peat 

Pine (lumber) white yellow 
Pine (lumber) white. . . . . . 



3,915 



100 

425 



350 



600 
500 
600 
500 

500 
000 



APPENDIX 
MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS (Continued) 



353 



Commodity 



Weight in Pounds 



Average 
perM. Ft. 



Average 
per Cu. Ft. 



Quartz, solid 

Quartz, crushed 

Quicklime* 

Salt 

Sand, dry quartz 

Sandstone, solid 

Sandstone, crushed. . . 

Slate 

Snow, fresh dry 

Snow, wet. 

Soapstone 

Spruce (Imnber) 

Steel 

Sycamore (liunber) . . . . 

Tar 

Tin 

Trap, solid 

Trap, crushed 

Turf .'. 

Walnut, black (lumber) 

Water, fresh 

Water, salt 



100 
000 



175 



165 

94 

53 

60 

98 
151 

86 

75 
8 

22 
170 

25 
490 

37 

62 
459 
187 
105 

25 

38 

62 h 

64 M 



^ Figures referring to weights of lumber apply only to weU- seasoned 
material which is perfectly dry. To secure approximate weights of 
green lumber add from ^/^ to V2 the weight of dry Ixmiber, according 
to the degree of sesisoning. The prevalent idea that 1,000 board feet 
must weigh the same as a soUd body of 83 H cubic feet of lumber is 
erroneous by reason of the loss in sawing, nearly all lumber being cut 
from }4- to }i-in.ch. scant, but measured full. Crushed stone weighs 
less per cubic foot than soUd stone, the decrease in weight being due 
to the niunerous voids between the fragments. Sand consisting of 
coarse and fine grains weighs more per cubic foot than when the grains 
are more nearly uniform in size; the finer grains fill the voids between 
the larger grains, and thus tend to form a more compact mass. The 
weight of salt and ice depends upon the porosity and the amoimt of 
foreign material present. Salt water outweighs fresh water in pro- 
portion to the amount of salt held in solution. 

2 22 bricks, with mortar, in a cubic foot of masonry. Standard brick, 
2x4x8 inches, scant. 

2 Natural cement, 300, and Portland, 380 pounds per barrel. 

^ 66 Pounds per bushel. 



354 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

RELATION OF DEGREES AND PER CENT 

All road, trail, or railroad surveys of grades are expressed in 
per centj while curves are expressed in degrees. For example: 
A 10 per cent grade rises 10 feet in a horizontal distance of 100 
feet, while a 3-degree curve has a horizontal deflection of 3 
degrees. 

These points should be remembered and care taken not to 
confuse the two terms. The following table shows the relation 
they bear to each other: 



Degrees 


Per Cent 


Degrees 


Per Gent 


Degrees 


Per Cent 


1 


1.74 

3.49 

5.24 

6.99 

8.75 

10.51 

12.28 

14.05 

15.84 

17.63 

19.44 

21.26 

23.09 

24.93 

26.80 


16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 


28.67 
30.57 
32.49 
34.43 
36.40 
38.39 
40.40 
42.45 
44.52 
46.63 
48.77 
50.95 
53.17 
55.43 
57.73 


31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 


60.10 


2 


62.49 


3 


64.94 


4 


67.45 


5 


70.02 


6 


72.65 


7 


75.35 


8 


78.14 


9 


80.98 


10 


83.90 


11 


86.93 


12 


90.04 


13 


93.25 


14 


96.57 


15....^.... 


100.00 



TO ASCERTAIN GRADES WITHOUT A GRADOMETER 

The accompanying illustration shows one method of deter- 
mining a grade when no gradometer is available. A 10-foot 
pole is used. One end is allowed to rest on the ground and 
the other end is held at a point which leaves the pole horizontal. 
The vertical distance from the high end to the ground is then 
secured and when multiplied by ten gives the per cent of the 
grade. An average of several such measurements taken at 
different points on a grade will give the approximate per cent 
of grade over the entire route. 

In case no spirit-level is available for leveUng the pole, a yery 
satisfactory substitute may be had by the use of a bottle filled 
with water, tightly corked, and attached to the pole about 



APPENDIX 



355 



midway between the ends. The pole may be assumed to be 
approximately horizontal when the air-bubble in the bottle 
remains stationary at or near the middle of the bottle. 



(Level ^ , 
10 Foot A : Pol 




SAG TABLES 

Pole Lines. — The following table shows the amount of sag 
to be allowed for in hanging No. 9 or No. 12 galvanized wire 
for telephone lines. An extra allowance of 2 inches should be 
made if No. 12 hard-drawn copper wire is used. 



Temp., F. 



-30° 



-10° 


10° 


30° 


60° 


80° 



100° 



Length 
of Span, 
in Feet 



Sag, in Inches 



75. 
100. 
115. 
130. 
150. 
1761, 
300. 
400. 
500. 



1.0 


1.5 


1.5 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


3.5 


4.5 


5.5 


2.5 


3.0 


3.5 


4.0 


5.5 


7.0 


3.5 


4.0 


4.5 


5.5. 


7.0 


8.5 


4.5 


5.0 


6.0 


7.0 


9.0 


11.5 


6.0 


7.0 


8.0 


9.5 


12.0 


15.0 


J2.0 


25.5 


29.5 


33.0 


42.5 


49.0 


t3.0 


48.5 


54.5 


60.0 


78.0 


84.0 


^2.0 


84.0 


90.0 


96.0 


114.0 


132.0 



4.5 

7.0 

9.0 

11.0 

14.0 

18.0 

55.0 

96.0 

150.0 



1 Length of standard span used by the Forest Service. See top 
page 358. 



Tree Lines. — Greater sag must be allowed in lines hung on 
trees and should be not less than shown below for wires men- 
tioned in the foregoing table. 



356 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



Temp., F. 


-30° 


-10° 


10° 


30° 


60° 


80° 


100° 


Length of 
Span, in Feet 






Sag. 


in Inches 






75 


25.0 


25.5 


25.5 


26.0 


26.5 


27.0 


28.5 


100 


26.0 


26.5 


27.5 


27.5 


28.5 


29.5 


31.0 


115 


26.5 


27.0 


27.5 


28.0 


29.5 


31.0 


33.0 


130 


27.5 


28.0 


28.5 


29.5 


31.0 


32.5 


35.0 


150 


28.5 


29.0 


30.0 


31.0 


33.0 


35.5 


38.0 


1761 


30.0 


31.0 


32.0 


33.5 


36.0 


39.0 


42.0 


300 


46.0 


49.5 


53.5 


57.0 


66.5 


73.0 


79.0 


400 


66.0 


72.0 


84.0 


90.0 


102.0 


108.0 


120.0 


500 


96.0 


108.0 


114.0 


120.0 


138.0 


156.0 


174.0 



1 Length of standard span used by the Forest Service. 
TO ASCERTAIN DISTANT ELEVATIONS 

The following table indicates the difference in altitude between 
distant points and the point from which observations are taken. 
It makes allowance for refraction, curvature of the earth's sur- 
face, and 43^ feet as the height of the instrument used in taking 
observations. The difference in altitude indicated should, of 
course, be added to the altitude of the point from which observa- 
tions are taken if the reading is to include elevation above sea- 
level; otherwise the reading will cover only the difference in 
elevation between the point observed and the one from which 
observations are made. 



Distance, in 

Miles 



10 



Vertical 

Angles, in 

Degrees 



Feet 



1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



97 


191 


286 


383 


480 


768 


678 


778 


880 


189 


376 


563 


752 


941 


1,131 


1,324 


1,516 


1,710 


282 


560 


840 


1,121 


1,403 


1,685 


1,970 


2,255 


2,541 


374 


745 


1,118 


1,491 


1,865 


2,240 


2,617 


2,995 


3,374 


467 


931 


1,396 


1,862 


2,329 


2,797 


3,267 


3,737 


4,208 


560 


1,117 


1,675 


2,234 


2,794 


3,355 


3,918 


4,481 


5,046 


653 


1,304 


1,955 


2,607 


3,261 


3,915 


4,571 


5,227 


5,886 


747 


1,491 


2,236 


2,982 


3,729 


4,477 


5,227 


5,977 


6,729 


841 


1,680 


2,519 


3,359 


4,200 


5,043 


5,887 


6,731 


7,577. 


936 


1,869 


2,803 


3,738 


4,674 


5,611 


6,550 


7,489 


8,430 



984 
1,906 
2,829 
3,754 
4,681 
5,612 
6,545 
7,483 
.8,425 
9,372 



APPENDIX 



357 



TRAVERSE TABLE i 
Showing Whole Degrees Only 



Degrees 


Latitude 


Departure 







1.000 


0.000 


90 


1 


1.000 


.017 


89 


2 


.999 


.035 


88 


3 


.999 


.052 


87 


4 


.998 


.070 


86 


5 


.996 


.087 


85 


6 


.995 


.104 


84 


7 


.992 


.122 


83 


8 


.990 


.139 


82 


9 


.988 


.156 


81 


10 


.985 


.174 


80 


11 


.982 


.191 


79 


12 


.978 


.208 


78 


13 


.974 


.225 


77 


14 


.970 


.242 


76 


15 


.966 


.259 


75 


16 


.961 


.276 


74 


17 


.956 


.292 


73 


18 


.951 


.309 


72 


19 


.946 


.326 


71 


20 


.940 


.342 


70 


21 


.934 


.358 


69 


22 


.927 


.375 


68 


23 


.920 


.391 


67 


24 


.913 


.497 


66 


25 


.906 


.423 


65 


26 


.899 


.438 


64 


27 


.891 


.454 


63 


28 


.883 


.470 


62 


29 


.875 


.485 


61 


30 


.866 


.500 


60 


31 


.857 


.515 


59 


32 


.848 


.530 


58 


33 


.839 


.545 


57 


34 


.829 


.559 


56 


35 


.819 


.574 


55 


36 


.809 


.588 


54 




Departure 


Latitude 


Degrees 



1 For table showing traverse distances of fractional degrees consult 
"Instructions for IMaking Forest Surveys and Maps," 1912, U. S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. By Henry S. Graves, Forester. 

Any other reliable work on general surveying should include similar 
information concerning traverse tables. 



358 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 



TRAVERSE TABLE (Continued) 
Showing Whole Degrees Only 



Degrees 


Latitude 


Departure 




37 


.799 


.602 


53 


38 


.788 


.616 


52 


39 


.777 


.629 


51 


40 


.766 


.643 


50 


41 


.755 


.656 


49 


42 


.743 


.669 


48 


43 


.731 


.682 


47 


44 


.719 


.695 


46 


45 


.707 


.707 


45 




Departure 


Latitude 


Degrees 



PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF TELEPHONE 
POLES.i 

Application of Creosote. — The equipment required for this 
work consists of one lO-gallon iron pot, a half -gallon dipper, a 
2- or 3-gallon bucket, a 4-inch wire-bound brush, and a ther- 
mometer. Creosote is heated in the iron pot, dipped out into 
the bucket and carried about as desired, and appUed to the 
poles with the brush. It should be heated to a temperature 
between 120° F. and 150° F. in hot, dry weather and to about 
180° F. in cold weather. It should be applied to the poles 
while hot, the points of application being the end surfaces of 
the poles, and their entire outer surfaces from the lower end up 
to a point at least 18 inches above ground when the poles are 
set. A second application should be made twenty-four hours 
later. Braces, stubs, and re-enforcements should receive similar 
treatment. 

If the creosote is allowed to boil over it may take fire and be 
consumed. 



1 See the'following Forest Service publications: 

Cir. 188, Volatilization of Various Fractions of Creosote after Their 
Injection into Wood. 

Bui. 84, Preservative Treatment of Poles. 

Bill. 78, Wood Preservation in the United States. 

Cir. 191, Modification of the Sulphonation Test for Creosote. 

Cir. 190, A Visual Method for Determining the Penetration of In- 
organic Salts in Treated Wood. 



APPENDIX 
SIZE AND NUMBER OF NAILS PER POUND 



Size 



359 



Common Wire 

2 

3 . 

4. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

16 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

Com?nonWire, Galv'z' 

6 

8. 

10 

Blued Wire 

2 Common 

3 Fine 

Lath, Blue, Sterilized 

2 Light 

Fine Wire 

2 

3 

Wire Casing 

4 

6 

8 

10 



Lgth 


Wire 


App'ox. 


in 
Ins. 


Gauge 


No. per 
Lb. 


1 


15 


876 


IH 


14 


568 


IM 


12 y2 


316 


IH 


12^ 


271 


2 


iiy2 


181 


2H 


iiM 


161 


2J^ 


lOH 


106 


2H 


10 H 


96 


3 


9 


69 


3M 


9 


63 


3M 


8 


49 


4 


6 


31 


4^ 


1- o 


24 


5 


4 


18 


514 


3 


14 


6 


2 


11 


2 


113^ 


380 


2^ 


10 M 


92 


3 


9 


60 


1 


15 


876 


IVs 


15 


778 


1 


17 


1,158 


1 


16^ 


1,351 


IH 


15 


778 


iy2 


14 


473 


2 


12 K 


236 


2^ 


IIM 


145 


3 


103^ 


94 



Used in all ordinary 
rough work such as 
buUding, fencing, out- 
side repairs, etc. 



Used for the same pur- 
poses as common wire 
nails. 

Used in lathing. The 
bluing permits them 
to be held in the 
mouth without danger 
of infection. 

Used when thin Hght 
naUs are required. 

Used in ceiUng, orna- 
mental work, and 
other fine work or 
repairing. 



Cement-coated nails are used as substitutes for common 
wire nails. 

Ordinarily wire nails are shipped in lots of 100 pounds per keg, 
but the shipping weight of cement-coated nails varies from 88 
pounds for 2ds to 90 pounds for 60ds. However, there are as 



360 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 




Fig. 235. — Wire nails. 



many per keg as there are common wire nails of a corresponding 
size, the difference in weight being due to the hghter gauge. 

They are also used where more adhesive resistance is required 
than is furnished by a common wire nail. It is claimed that the 
cement coating renders them from 20% to 30% more durable 
when exposed to extreme moisture. In a comparative test of 
adhesive resistance, a common wire 8d nail, driven 2 inches, 
showed a resistance of 146 pounds; a cement-coated nail of the 
same size, driven a Hke distance, showed a resistance of 322 
pounds. 

SIZE AND NUMBER OF FENCE STAPLES PER POUNDi 



Size, in Inches .... 
Number per Pound , 



1 
120 



100 



1V2 

80 



1 Supplied by Simmons Hardware Company, St. Louis, Mo. 



60d.- 




P,0d.-6 iQ.xNo. 2. 




6 iQ. X No. 2. 




)S. () 



1% inch- 
is 14 




Fig. 240. — Sere 




Nos. 6 7 



Fig. 239.— Scre-sTs. 




CO 



APPENDIX 
BLASTING CHARGESi 



369 



Weight 
of 


Approximate Number of l}i" x S" Cart- 
ridges Required for 


Boulder, 
Pounds 


Block- 
hoUng 


Snake- 
holing 


Mud- 
capping 


100 to 500 

1,000 


% 
1 

IK 
1% 

3M 


Mtol 
1^ 
2^ 
3 

3H 
4 
5 
6 


JitolK 
2 


2,000 


3 


3,000 


3H 
4 


4,000 


5,000 


43^ 


7 500 . ... 


6 


10 000 


8 







GOVERNMENT FORMULA FOR WHITEWASH^ 

Take haK a bushel of unslacked lime; slack it with boiling 
water and cover during the process to keep in the steam; strain 
the Uquid through a fine sieve or strainer; add a peck of salt 
previously well dissolved in warm water, 3 pounds of ground 
rice boiled to a thin paste; stir in boiling hot one-half pound 
of powdered Spanish whiting and one pound of glue which 
has been previously dissolved over a slow fire, and add five 
gallons hot water to the mixture; stir well and let it stand for 
a few days, covered up from the dirt. It should be put on hot. 
One pint of mixture will cover a square yard properly apphed. 
Small brushes are best. There is nothing that can compare 
with it for outside or inside work, and it retains its briUiancy for 
years. Coloring matter may be put in and made of any shade, 
as Spanish brown, yellow ochre, or common clay. 

LOG RULES 

The log rules most widely used in the United States are the 
Two-Thirds rule, used in many parts of the North and South, 
and the Southeast and Northwest; the Doyle, also used in the 
same sections; the Scribner, in common use throughout the 

1 Supplied by E. I. du Pont de Nemours Powder Company, 
Wilmington, Delaware. 

2 Contributed by International Harvester Co., Chicago, lU. 



370 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

country; the Doyle-Scribner, which is perhaps the most widely 
used of any; and the Scribner Decimal " C," which is the official 
log rule of the Forest Service. 

Two-Thirds Rule. — This rule is based on a formula in which 
the square of two-thirds of the small diameter of a log is multi- 
pHed by the number of the log's length in feet, this result then 
being divided by 12. Thus, letting D represent the diameter, 
L the length, and C the number of board feet in a log, the formula 

on T 
is — X — = C. For a 12-foot log the formula would, of course, 
3 12 

2D 

be — ■ = C. This scale crosses the Doyle at 18 and the Scrib- 

o 

ner at 15 inches, overrunning both to these respective diameters 
and underrunning them thereafter. 

Doyle Rule. — This scale is also based on a formula, wherein 
4 is subtracted from the small diameter and one-fourth of the 
remainder is squared and then multiplied by the number of the 

/2)_4\2 
log's length in feet, thus: I — — 1 X L = C. A shorter formula, 

applicable only to 16-foot logs, follows: (D — 4)^ = C. A third 

L 

formula, appUcable to logs of any length, is: (D — 4)^ x -— = C. 

The subtraction of 4 from the diameter is supposed to account 
for the loss in kerf and slabs, and, since it apphes with equal 
force to large and small logs, is obviously unfair. The only 
means by which the mill tally may be made to agree with it 
are by scaling each log full with no allowance whatever for 
defect and by the very poorest and most wasteful sawing. 
Even then the mill overrun may be astonishing. The rule up 
to and including a 24-foot log 48 inches in diameter is shown on 
opposite page. 

Numbers shown on the scale stick fail in several instances to 

agree with results obtained from the formula: ( 1 X L = C. 

There appears to be no systematic disposition of fractions in 
computations involving the contents of logs having diameters 
other than multiples of 4, but the wide discrepancies noted in 
reference to contents of logs 10, 19, 22, 38 and 89 by 20,. 23 by 
14 and 16, 27 by 16, 31 by 22, and 39 by 12 elude explanation. 

Some of these discrepancies are shown in table opposite. 



APPENDIX 



371 



Diameter 
in 


Lgth. 
in 

Feet 


Board Feet as 
Shown 


Difference 


Inches 


By Stick 


By Formula L 


OSS 


Gain 


9 


24 
20 
18 
22 
24 
24 
18 
22 
20 
24 
18 
20 
22 
14 
16 
20 
24 
18 
22 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
20 
22 
14 
18 
22 
20 
22 
14 
18 
20 
12 
20 
24 
20 
20 
22 
20 
20 


37 

46 

112 

137 

18i 

253 

220 

269 

280 

433 

364 

404 

445 

313 

359 

452 

541 

544 

665 

463 

530 

596 

782 

860 

912 

1,004 

787 

1,012 

1,237 

1,202 

1,322 

1,011 

1,300 

1,446 

910 

1,530 

2,053 

1,902 

2,102 

2,312 

2,206 

2,312 


37.50 
45.00 

112.50 

137.50 

181.50 

253.50 

220 . 50 

269.50 

281.25 1 

433.50 

364.50 

405.00 1 

445.50 

315.875 2 

361.00 2 

451.25 

541 . 50 

544.50 

655.50 

462.875 

529.00 

595 . 125 

781.25 

859 . 375 

911.25 
1002.375 

787.50 
1012.50 
1237.50 
1201.25 
1321.375 
1011.50 
1300.50 
1445.00 

918.75 8 
1531.25 1 
2053.50 
1901.25 
2101.25 
2311.375 
2205.00 
2311.25 


50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50^ 

25 

50 

50 

00 

50 

875 

00 

50 
50 
50 

50 
50 
50 

50 
50 

75 
25 
50 




10 


1.00 


14 




14 




15 




17 . , . . 




18 




18 




19 




21 




22 




22 




22 




23 




23 




23 


.75 


23 




26 




26 




27 


1.25 


27 


1.00 


27 


.875 


29 ... 


.875 


29 


.625 


31 


.875 


31 


1.625 


34 




34 




34 




35 


.75 


35 


.625 


38 




38 




38 


1.00 


39 




39 




41 




43 


.75 


45 ... 


.75 


45 


.625 


46 


1.00 


47 


.75 







372 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 
DOYLE LOG RULEi 



Diam. 








Length in 


Feet 








m 




















Inches 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


8 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


9 


12 


16 


19 


22 


25 


28 


31 


34 


37 


10 


18 


23 


27 


32 


36 


41 


46 


50 


54 


11 


24 


31 


37 


43 


49 


55 


61 


67 


74 


12 


32 


40 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


13 


40 


50 


61 


71 


81 


91 


101 


111 


122 


14 


50 


62 


75 


88 


100 


112 


125 


137 


150 


15 


60 


75 


91 


106 


121 


136 


151 


166 


181 


16 


72 


90 


108 


126 


144 


162 


180 


198 


216 


17 


84 


106 


127 


148 


169 


190 


211 


232 


253 


18 


98 


122 


147 


171 


196 


220 


245 


269 


294 


19 


112 


141 


169 


197 


225 


253 


280 


309 


338 


20 


128 


160 


192 


224 


256 


288 


320 


352 


384 


21 


144 


181 


217 


253 


289 


325 


361 


397 


433 


22 


162 


202 


243 


283 


324 


364 


404 


445 


486 


23 


180 


226 


271 


313 


359 


406 


452 


496 


541 


24 


200 


250 


300 


350 


400 


450 


500 


550 


600 


25 


220 


276 


331 


386 


441 


496 


551 


606 


661 


26 


242 


302 


363 


423 


484 


544 


605 


665 


726 


27 


264 


330 


397 


463 


530 


596 


661 


726 


794 


28 


288 


360 


432 


504 


576 


648 


720 


792 


864 


29 


312 


391 


469 


• 547 


625 


703 


782 


860 


938 


30 


338 


422 


507 


591 


676 


761 


845 


930 


1,014 


31 


364 


456 


547 


638 


729 


820 


912 


1,004 


1,094 


32 


392 


490 


588 


686 


784 


882 


980 


1,078 


1,176 


33 


420 


526 


631 


736 


841 


946 


1,051 


1,156 


1,262 


34 


450 


562 


675 


787 


900 


1,012 


1,125 


1,237 


1,350 


35 


480 


601 


721 


841 


961 


1,081 


1,202 


1,322 


1,442 


36 


512 


640 


768 


896 


1,024 


1,152 


1,280 


1,408 


1,536 


37 


544 


681 


817 


953 


1,089 


1,225 


1,361 


1,497 


1,634 


38 


578 


723 


867 


1,011 


1,156 


1,300 


1,446 


1,590 


1,734 


39 


612 


765 


910 


1,070 


1,225 


1,379 


1,530 


1,684 


1,838 


40 


648 


810 


972 


1,134 


1,296 


1,458 


1,620 


1,782 


1,944 


41 


684 


856 


1,027 


1,198 


1,369 


1,540 


1,711 


1,882 


2,053 


42 


722 


902 


1,083 


1,264 


1,444 


1,625 


1,805 


1,986 


2,166 


43 


761 


951 


1,141 


1,331 


1,521 


1,711 


1,902 


2,091 


2,282 


44 


800 


1,000 


1,200 


1,400 


1,600 


1,800 


2,000 


2,200 


2,400 


45 


840 


1,051 


1,261 


1,471 


1,681 


1,891 


2,102 


2,312 


2,522 


46 


882 


1,103 


1,323 


1,544 


1,764 


1,985 


2,206 


2,426 


2,646 


47 


925 


1,155 


1,387 


1,618 


1,849 


2,080 


2,312 


2,542 


2,774 


48 


968 


1,218 


1,452 


1,694 


1,936 


2,178 


2,420 


2,662 


2,904 



1 Supplied by Lufkin Rule Co., Saginaw, Mich. 



APPENDIX 



373 



Scribner Rule. — This rule is based on diagrams showing what 
logs of different lengths and diameters should saw out. It is 
fairly accurate on logs over 28 inches in diameter, but overruns 
on smaller logs unless these are very carefuUy culled and sawed. 
The rule up to and including a 20-foot log 36 inches in diameter 
follows : 

SCRIBNER LOG RULE 



Diam. 


Length in Feet 


in 
Ins. 


8 
4 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


6 


5 . 


6 


7 


9 


10 


11 


7 . . . . 


. 8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


8 


12 


15 


19 


22 


25 


28 


31 


9 


18 


23 


27 


32 


36 


40 


45 


10 


24 


30 


37 


43 


49 


55 


61 


11 


32 


40 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


12 


40 


49 


59 


69 


79 


88 


98 


13. c . . 


48 


61 


73 


85 


97 


109 


122 


14 


57 


72 


86 


100 


114 


129 


143 


15 


71 


89 


107 


125 


142 


160 


178 


16. . . . 


79 


99 


119 


139 


159 


178 


198 


17 


93 


116 


139 


182 


185 


208 


232 


18 


106 


133 


160 


187 


213 


240 


267 


19 


120 


150 


180 


210 


240 


270 


300 


20 


140 


175 


210 


245 


280 


315 


350 


21 


152 


190 


228 


266 


304 


342 


380 


22 


167 


209 


251 


292 


334 


376 


418 


23 


188 


235 


283 


330 


377 


424 


470 


24 


202 


252 


303 


353 


404 


454 


505 


25 


229 


287 


344 


401 


459 


516 


573 


26 


250 


313 


375 


439 


500 


562 


625 


27 


274 


342 


411 


479 


548 


616 


684 


28 


291 


363 


436 


509 


582 


654 


728 


29 


305 


381 


457 


533 


609 


685 


761 


30 


328 


411 


493 


575 


657 


739 


821 


31 


355 


444 


532 


622 


710 


799 


888 


32 


368 


460 


552 


644 


736 


828 


920 


33 


392 


490 


588 


686 


784 


882 


980 


34 


400 


500 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1,000 


35 


438 


547 


657 


766 


876 


985 


1,095 


36 


462 


577 


692 


807 


923 


1,038 


1.152 



Doyle-Scribner Rule. — By combining Doyle measurements for 
logs under 28 inches in diameter with Scribner measurements 



374 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

for larger logs this rule eliminates the greatest faults of both 
and provides a fairly accurate rule for all logs. 

Scribner Decimal " C " Rule. — This is merely a revision of the 
Scribner rule and is formulated by dropping units and rounding 
off tens to the next above or below. Therefore the figiu-es rep- 
resenting board feet on the scale stick are not complete, but 
require the addition of a cipher except in 6- and 7-inch logs 6 
feet long and 6-inch logs 8 feet long, the contents of all of which 
are indicated on the stick as 0.5, which, being theoretically 
multipUed by 10, as are all the other volume numbers, equal 5 
board feet. 

The system of revision seems to lack uniformity throughout 
the rule up to the 12-inch diameter. 

Instructions concerning official use of the rule state that in 
Alaska and west of the summit of the Cascade Mountains, in 
Washington and Oregon, all logs up to 32 feet long, inclusive, 
will be scaled as one log. Logs from 34 to 64 feet, inclusive, 
will be scaled as two logs as nearly the same length in even feet 
as possible. Logs exceeding 64 feet in length will be scaled as 
three logs as nearly equal in lengths of even feet as possible. 
When such divisions of a log are necessary the scaler must make 
allowance for taper, but tables of taper may be secured upon 
requisition. 

The rule up to and including a 32-foot log 120 inches in diam- 
eter follows: 



APPENDIX 375 

SCRIBNER DECIMAL "C" LOG RULE i 



1 

Diam. 














Length in Feet 










in j 










i 








1 








1 




Inches 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 ! 

1 


32 


6...... 


0.5 


0.5 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


s 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


7 


0.5 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


6 


8...... 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


9 


1 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


9 


10 


11 


12 


11 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


7 


8 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


12 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


13 


4 


.5 


6 


7 


8 


10 


11 


12 


13 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


14 


4 


6 


7 


9 


10 


11 


13 


14 


16 


17 


19 


20 


21 


23 


15 


5 


7 


9 


11 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


21 


23 


25 


27 


28 


16 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


32 


17 


7 


9 


12 


14 


16 


18 


21 


23 


25 


28 


30 


32 


35 


37 


18 


8 


11 


13 


16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


29 


32 


35 


37 


40 


43 


19 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


33 


36 


39 


42 


45 


48 


20 


11 


14 


17 


21 


24 


28 


31 


35 


38 


42 


45 


49 


52 


56 


21 


12 


15 


19 


23 


27 


30 


34 


38 


42 


46 


49 


53 


57 


61 


22 


13 


17 


21 


25 


29 


33 


38 


42 


46 


50 


54 


58 


63 


67 


23 


14 


19 


23 


28 


33 


38 


42 


47 


52 


57 


61 


66 


71 


75 


24 


15 


21 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


61 


66 


71 


76 


81 


25 


17 


23 


29 


34 


40 


46 


52 


57 


63 


69 


75 


80 


86 


92 


26 


19 


25 


31 


37 


44 


50 


56 


62 


69 


75 


82 


88 


94 


100 


27 


21 


27 


34 


41 


48 


55 


62 


68 


75 


.82 


89 


96 


103 


110 


28 


22 


29 


36 


44 


51 


58 


•65 


73 


80 


87 


95 


102 


109 


116 


29 


23 


31 


38 


46 53 


61 


68 


76 


84 


91 


99 


107 


114 


122 


30 


25 


33 


41 


49 57 


66 


74 


82 


90 


. 99 


107 


115 


123 


131 


31 


27 


36 


44 


53 62 


71 


80 


89 


98 


106 


115 


124 


133 


142 


32 


28 


37 


46 


55164 


74 


83 


92 


101 


110 


120 


129 


138 


147 


33 


29 


39 


49 


59: 69 


78 


88 


98 


108 


118 


127 


137 


147 


157 


34 


30 


40 


50 


60 70 


80 


90 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


160 


35 


33 


44 


55 


66 77 


88 


98 


109 


120 


131 


142 


153 


164 


175 


36 


35 


46 


58 


69 81 


92 


104 


115 


127 


138 


150 


161 


173 


185 


37 


39 


51 


64 


771 90 


103 


116 


129 


142 


154 


167 


180 


193 


206 


38 


40 


54 


67 


80 93 


107 


120 


133 


147 


160 


174 


187 


200 


214 


39 


42 


56 


70 


84 


98 


112 


126 


140 


154 


168 


182 


196 


210 


224 


40 


45 


60 


75 


90 


105 


120 


135 


150 


166 


181 


196 


211 


226 


241 


41 


48 


64 


79 


95 


111 


127 


143 


159 


175 


191 


207 


223 


238 


254 


42 


50 


67 


84 


101 


117 


134 


151 


168 


185 


201 


218 


235 


252 


269 


43 


52 


70 


87 


105 


122 


140 


157 


174 


192 


209 


227 


244 


262 


279 


44 


56 


74 


93 


111 


129 


148 


166 


185 


204 


222 


241 


259 


278 


296 


45 


57| 76 


95 


114 


133 


1 152 


171 


190 


209 


226 


247 


266 


286 


304 



Official rule of the Forest Service and used in all Government scaling. 



376 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 
SCRIBNER DECIMAL "C" LOG RULE {Continued) 



Diam. 

in 
Inches 



Length in Feet 



6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 



176206 



183 



213 



189221 
196229 



203 



237 



175210245 



239279 

288 



212 
175219 



180 
186 
192 
197 
203 
209 
215 
166221 



206247 
254 
262 
271 
279 
287 
296 
305 
314 
323 



171 



228 



226 

232 

240 

247 

254 

261 

269 

277332 

285341 



176234 



180 



240 



185247 
190254 



196261 



326391 



335 
275343 



215287 



297 
306 
316 
325 
335 
345 
356 
366 
377 
387 
398 
410 
421 
432 
444 
456 
468 
481 
491 
503 



159 
166 
173 
180 
187 
195 
202 
210 
218 
227 
235 
244 
252 
261 
270 
280 
289 
299 
309 
319 
329 
339 
350 
361 
372 
383 
395 
406 
418 
430 
443 
455 
468 
481 
494 
508 
521 
535 
549 
561 
575 



178 
186 
194 
202 
211 
219 
228 
237 
246 
255 
264 
274 
284 
294 
304 
315 
325 
336 
348 
358 
370 
381 
393 
406 
419 
430 
444 
457 
471 
484 
498 
511 
527 
541 
556 
572 
586 
601 
618 
631 
646 



198 
207 
216 
225 
234 
243 
253 
263 
273 
283 
294 
304 
315 
327 
338 
350 
362 
373 
387 
398 
412 
423 
437 
452 
465 
478 
493 
508 
523 
538 
553 
568 
585 
602 
618 
635 
652 
668 
687 
702 
718 



218 
228 
238 
247 
257 
268 
278 
289 
300 
312 
323 
335 
347 
359 
372 
385 
398 
411 
425 
438 
453 
466 
480 
497 
512 
526 
543 
559 
576 
592 
609 
625 
644 
662 
680 
699 
717 
735 
755 
772 
790 



238 
248 
260 
270 
281 
292 
304 
316 
328 
340 
353 
365 
379 
392 
406 
420 
434 
448 
464 
478 
494 
508 
524 
542 
558 
574 
592 
610 
628 
646 
664 
682 
702 
722 
742 
762 
782 
802 
824 
842 
862 



258 
269 
281 
292 
304 
315 
329 
341 
355 
368 
382 
396 
410 
425 
439 
455 
470 
485 
503 
518 
535 
550 
568 
587 
605 
622 
641 
661 
680 
700 
719 
739 
761 
782 
804 
826 
847 
869 
893 
912 
934 



278 
290 
302 
314 
328 
341 
354 
368 
382 
397 
411 
426 
442 
457 
473 
490 
506 
523 
541 
558 
576 
593 
611 
632 
651 
670 
691 
712 
733 
754 
775 
796 
819 
842 



912 
936 
961 
982 
,006 



APPENDIX 377 

SCRIBNER DECIMAL "C" LOG RULE (Continued) 



Diam. 

in 
Inches 



Length in Feet 



6 8 10 12 14 16 



18 



20 22 



24 



26 28 30 32 



221 



295 



368442j516 

377 452j527 

308'385462|539 

3151393 472 551 

322402 483'563 



226301 

231 

236 

241 

246 

51335'419j503j587 
257|343l428,514 600 
262 350437 525 612 



96 268 357 

97 273 364 

98 278 371 



99 1284 379 



446536 625 
455j546637 
464557650 
473*568663 



100 '289 386482 579 675 

101 I295!393j492|590:688 

102 |30l|401 502 602702 

103 307 409 512 614716 

104.. ,. . J313;417 522'626,?30 

105 |319'425 532^638,744 

106 '325433 542 650,758 

107 '33l'442 553 663|773 

108 |337450 563 675:788 

109 '334459 573j688 803 

110 '350467 583700^817 



111 356475j594 

112 -362'483 604 

113 369|492|615 

114 '375 501626 

I, ' 



713832 
725846 
738861 
751876 
764891 



115 '382 509637 

116 J389:519:648|778'908 

117 396'528'660 792^924 



118. 
119. 
120. 



i403i537i672806|940 



589 
603 
616 
629 
644 
657 
671 
685 
700 
715 
728 
743 
757 
772 
787 
803 
819 
835 
851 
867 
884 
900 
917jl 
9331 
9511 
9671 
9841 
,0011 
,0191 
,0371 
,0561 



663 

678 

693 

708 

725 

739 

754 

771 

788 

804 

819 

835 

852 

869 

885 

903 

921 

9391, 

9571, 

9751, 

9951, 
,0131, 
,0324, 
,050'l, 
,069]l, 

,087:1, 

,1071, 
,1261, 
,1461, 
,167|l, 
,1881, 



410 



695 



820957 
8341973 

I 



209jl 
2301 
l,112il,2511 



0751, 
,0934, 



810 
829 
847 
865 
886 
904 
922 
942 
963 
983 
,001 
,021 
,041 
,062 
,082 
,104 
,126 
,148 
,170 
,192 
,216 
,238 
,261 
,283 
,307 
,329 
,353 
,377 
,401 
,426 
,452 



884 
904 
924 
944 
966 
986 
1,006 
1,028 
1,050 
1,072 
1,092 
1,114 
1,136 
1,158 
1,180 
1,204 
1,228 
1,252 
1,276 
1,300 
1,326 
1,350 
1,376 
1,400 
1,426 
1,450 
1,476 
1,502 
1,528 
1,556 
1,584 



1 

1 
1, 
1,47811,612 

1 
1 



,5031,640 
,5291,668 



958 
979 
,001 
,023 
,047 
,068 
,090 
,114 
138 
,161 
,183 
,207 
,231 
,255 
,278 
,304 
,330 
,356 
,382 
,408 
,437 
,463 
,491 
,517 
,545 
,571 
,599 
,627 
,655 
,686 
,716 
,746 
,777 
,807 



,031 
,055 
,078 
,101 
,127 
,150 
,174 
,199 
,225 
,251 
,274 
,300 
,325 
,351 
,377 
,405 
,433 
,461 
,489 
,517 
,547 
,575 
,605 



1,1051,179 
1,130|1,205 
1,155,1,232 
1,180|1,259 
1,2081,288 
1,2321,315 
1,2571.341 
1,2851,371 
1,3131,400 



1,340 
1,365 
1,392 
1,420 
1,448 
1,475 
1,505 
1,535 
1,565 
1,595 
1,625 
1,658 
1,688 
1,720 



1,429 
1,456 
1,485 
1,515 
1,544 
1,573 
1,605 
1,637 
1,669 
1,701 
1,733 
1,768 
1,800 
1,835 



6331,7501,867 



1,901 
1,933 
1,968 



,6641,782 
,6921,812 
,7221,845 
,752 1,877|2,003 
,7831,910^2,037 
,8151,9452,075 
,8481,9802,112 
,88l|2,015'2,149 
,9132,050:'2,187 
,946|2,085'2,224 
I 



COMPARISON OF LOG RULES i 
The following table ^hows the comparison of measurements 
of 16-foot logs from 8 to 48 inches in diameter as these are given 
by the more widely used rules. Less prominent rules, such as 

^ Supplied by Lufkin Rule Company, Saginaw, Mich. 



378 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Doyle-Baxter, Herring, Drew, Minor, Beaumont, and numerous 
others are not listed in the table: 



25 

36 

49 

64 

79 

97 

114 

142 

159 

185 

213 

240 

280 

304 

334 

377 

404 

459 

500 

548 

582 

609 

657 

710 

736 

784 

800 

876 

923 

1,029 

1,( 

1,120 

1,204 

1,272 

1,343 

1,396 

1,480 

1,518 

1,587 

1,656 

1,728 



22 
29 
37 

48 

64 

82 

98 
120 
142 
166 
197 
226 
248 
285 
324 
357 
392 
434 
476 
520 
562 
596 
632 
678 
725 
785 
845 
882 
920 
978 
,037 
,098 
,160 
,213 
,266 
,334(1 
,4021 
,4741 
,546'l 
,62l|l 
,6961 



34 

44 
56 
69 
84 

100 

117 

136 

156 

177 

200 

224 

250 

277 

305 

335 

366 

399 

432 

468 

504 

543 

582 

623 

665 

709 

754 

800 

848 

897 

946 

999 
,052 
,107 
,163 
,221^1 

280{l 

3401 

4011 

4641 

5291 



36 

48 
58 
70 
85 
100 
116 
133 
151 
171 
192 
213 
237 
261 
286 
313 
341 
370 
400 
432 
464 
498 
533 
569 
606 
648 
685 
725 
768 
811 
855 
901 
944 



40 
54 
68 
80 
100 
117 
136 
157 
180 
204 
229 
256 
285 
315 
346 
379 
414 
450 
487 
526 
567 
609 
652 
697 
744 
792 
841 
892 
945 
999 
1,054 
995'l,lll 
,0451,170 
,095|l,227 
,1471,300 
,200 1,350 



253 



365 



1,410 



3 w 
Xi > 



l,47o[l 
1,5801 



107 
121 
137 
153 
171 
190 
209 
229 
250 
281 
296 
320 
345 
372 
399 
427 
456 
485 
516 
548 
581 
614 
649 
685 
721 
759 
798 
835 
877 
918 
960 
,003 
,048 
,092 



33 

46 
59 
72 
85 
100 
116 
133 
150 
172 
192 
213 
237 
261 
284 
312 
341 
369 
400 
432 
464 
498 
533 
568 
608 
645 
685 
725 
768 
810 
856 
901 
947 
996 
1,045 



33 

45 
61 
70 
77 
97 
117 
144 
170 
188 
206 
226 
248 
285 
324 
357 
392 
421 
450 
520 
536 
584 
632 
678 
725 
785 
845 
882 
920 
978 
,037 
,090 
,160 
,213 
,266 
,334 
,402 
,474 
546 
621 
696 



3 S 

Oh i« 



50 

63 

77 

1 94 

114 

137 

161 

188 

216 

245 

276 

308 

341 

376 

412 

449 

488 

528 

569 

612 

656 

701 

748 

796 

845 

897 

950 

,006 

,064 

,124 

,185 

,248 



16 

25 

36 

49 

64 

81 

100 

121 

144 

169 

196 

225 

256 

289 

324 

359 

400 

441 

484 

530 

576 

609 

657 

710 

736 

784 

800 

876 

923 

1,029 

1,068 

1,120 

1,204 

1,272 



1,312 1,343 



,377 
,448 
,512 
,581 
,652 
,724 



1,396 
1,480 
1,518 
1,587 
1,656 
1,728 



GLOSSARY 

In any locality to which he may be assigned the new field 
man will experience more or less confusion in his deahngs with 
local residents who may use terms which are vague or even 
meaningless to him. 

A word or phrase that may be typical of one region may not 
be used in another, or, being used, may be so corrupted or modi- 
fied as to take on an entirely different meaning, and it is there- 
fore impossible to compile a glossary covering each and every 
strange term in all its phases. It is believed, however, that 
the following Hst of words and their definitions covers most of 
the terms the new man will not at first understand. The defini- 
tions given are not in every case precisely in accordance with 
those preferred by many philologists, but they wiU be found 
appHcable to their respective terms as these are used and gen- 
erally understood in the field. 

Technical terms, appHcable to special fines of work, are 
usually defined in an official glossary that may be secured upon 
requisition, and for that reason only the more common ones 
are included here. 

A key to the abbreviations used foUows: 



n. = Noun. 


N. 


= North. 


V. = Verb. 


S. 


= South. 


a. = Adjective. 


E. 


= East. 


adv. = Adverb. 


W. 


= West. 


pro. = Pronoxmced locally. 


NE. 


= Northeast. 


col. = Colloquialism in. 


NW. 


, = Northwest. 


cf. = Compare with. 


SE. 


= Southeast. 


Sp. = Spanish origin. 


sw. 


= Southwest. 


com. = Common to. 


AS. 


= All sections. 



Where reference has been had to a dictionary, Webster's 
Intercollegiate has been used. 



adobe, n. (1) A brownish-colored variety of stiff clay found in 
SW. and portions of W. (Sp.: adohar, to plaster.) Pro. 
ah-doe'-bay, but generally abbreviated to " dobe." 

(2) A sun-dried brick made of adobe. 

(3) A building made of adobe brick. Generally known as a 

" dobe." 

379 



380 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN ^ 

alfalfa, n. A homestead entered in a National Forest under the Act 
of June 11,. 1906. Col. W. and SW. See June 11. 

arrastra, n. A crude form of ore-crusher, the ore being ground 
rather than crushed. An upright shaft sets in a circular rock- 
bottomed enclosure and usually bears two or four horizontal 
arms, to the outer ends of which heavy stones are hung in 
such a manner that the ore is ground between them and the 
rock bottom of the pit. The shaft is rotated by means of 
water-, horse- or man-power. (Sp.: arrastrar, to crawl, to 
creep.) Pro. " raster." Especially com. SW., and frequently 
used in other gold-producing regions. 
V. To crush ore in an arrastra. 

arroyo, n. A deep, narrow ditch or gully. (Sp.: arroyo, a rivulet.) 
Pro. ah-roy'-yoh. Com. W. 



backfire, n. A fire started in front of another in such a manner as 

to burn toward it and consume inflammable material upon 

which it would otherwise feed. 
V. To fight one fire by means of another. 
balky, a. A term applied to an animal that refuses to work in 

harness. 
band, n. A group of sheep or goats, usually from 2,000 to 2,200 in 

number. 
bang, V. To cut away an animal's foretop. Cf. Roach. 
bar, n. (1) The ridge at the side of an animal's frog. 

(2) That part or a bit which passes through an animal's mouth. 

(3) That part of an animal's jaw between the molars and 

incisors. 

(4) One of the crosswise ridges at the roof of an animal's 

mouth. 

(5) One form of branding-iron. 

(6) A horizontal mark used as part of or to cancel a brand. 

(7) The wooden side of a saddle-tree. 

(8) One of a set of poles used in lieu of a gate. 

(9) A shallow ridge formed in the bed of a river by action of 

the current. Also col. S. and SE. for a long, low, flat 
stretch of clean gravel or sand appearing between the 
. river's edge and the bank proper. 
(10) See Crow bar and Pinch bar. 

iron, n. A straight iron rod with a shorter piece or bar welded 
at right angles to it at one end and used as a branding-iron. 
barrow, n. A castrated hog. 
bay, n. A bay animal. 

a. Reddish-brown in color. 



GLOSSARY 381 

bay, ?J. The action of a " cow " dog in barking at and otherwise 
engaging a cow's attention until she can be caught by 
the stockman. 

bed, n. (1) A wagon box. 

(2) The foundation of a trail or road tread. 

(3) The bottom of a, ditch or canon. 

V. (1) To prepare ground upon which cotton is to be raised. 

Com. AS. where cotton is raised. 
(2) To " bed down " cattle or sheep; to stop and keep them 
quiet over night. 
beetle, n. A hea-s-y wooden mallet used in driving iron wedges or 
wooden gluts into timbers that are to be split open. The 
head sets at right angles to the handle and is bound at either 
end \^ath an iron band. Cf. Maul. 
bevel-square, n. A small adjustable square used in lajdng o^J angles. 
bit, n. (1) That part of a bridle which works in an animal's mouth. 

(2) The blade or cutting portion of a tool. 

(3) Col. S., SE., W. and SW. for twelve and one-half cents 

(4) A variety of earmark. 

blab, n. A flat piece of wood or heavy tin or leather suspended 
from a calf's nose in such a way as to fall before the calf's 
mouth and thereby prevent sucking. The calf soon learns 
to throw it forward and out of the way in feeding from the 
ground. 
V. To attach a blab to a calf's nose. 
boar, n. An uncastrated hog. 
board, n. Col. S., SE., and W. for clapboard or shake {q.v.). 

foot: The unit of lumber measure; equal to a plank 12 inches 
square and 1 inch thick. 
bob, V. To cut away the hair at the end of an animal's tail. Cf. 

Roach. 
bog, n. A small area of stiff mud deep enough to entrap animals 
that enter it in their attempts to secure grass or water. Also 
known as " boghole." 
V. (1) To bog down; to be entrapped in a boghole. 
(2) Bog pulling, the operation of pulling or assisting an animal 
out of a boghole. 
bole, n. The trunk or stem of a tree. 

bolster, n. That portion of a wagon gear upon which the bed rests. 

bone-brand, n. A blurred brand due to excessive heat or protracted 

pressure of the iron at the time the brand is applied. 

V. To burn an animal severely in branding. 

bozal, n. That part of a halter, hackamore or bridle which passes 

about the animal's jaws above the mouth. (Sp. : bozal, a 

muzzle, a novice.) Pro. bo-zahl'. Com. W. and SW. 



382 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

brand, n. A character burned into or otherwise applied to an 
animal's skin, hoofs, or horns to facilitate identification. 
Also applied to tools and other property for the same purpose, 
V. To apply identification marks to property. 
branding-hatchet, n. See Marking-hatchet. 

breast-collar, n. (1) A leather strap passed from one side of the 

saddle rig beneath the animal's neck and across to the other 

side of the rig and supplied in order to facilitate leading or 

dragging stock from the saddle-horn. 

(2) That part of a buggy or carriage harness which passes 

before an animal's breast and which is supported from a 

strap across the neck immediately before the withers. 

strap, n. That part of a harness which supports the end of the 

neck yoke, 
yoke, n. That part of a wagon gear which is suspended from the 
team's collars and which supports the forward end of 
the pole. More commonly known as " neck " yoke. 
The term " breast yoke " doubtless originates from the 
fact that the yoke works before the animals' breasts. 
brindle, a. Marked with streaks of (usually) black and brown, 
although often used in reference to a similar arrangement of 
other colors, 
brisket, n. That portion of an animal's breast next to the ribs. 

The term applies only to cattle. 
broncho, n. A half-tamed animal, applicable alike to horses, mules, 
burros and cattle. (Sp.: broncho, rough, sturdy, wild.) 
Pro, brong'-ko. Com, all parts W. Cf. Mustang. 
a. Wild, rough, uncouth. Col. all parts W. 
broom tail, n. An undersized or poorly developed pony. Col. SW. 
broomy, n. See above, 
brow band, n. That part of a bridle or halter which passes before 

and at the base of an animal's ears. 
browse, n. The leaves and twigs of brush. Pro. browce. 

V. To eat browse. Pro. browze. 
buck, n. (1) An uncastrated goat. Also frequently used in refer- 
ence to an uncastrated sheep. Col. AS. 
(2) An Indian (male). Col. W. 
V. (1) To cut a tree stem into log lengths. 

(2) The action of an animal in attempting to unseat the rider 
by means of a series of sudden, irregular jumps. 
buckaroo, n. Vaquero (q.v.). Pro. buck-a-roo', or buck-kay'-roe. 

Col. SW. 
bucker, n. (1) One who cuts tree stems into log lengths. 

(2) An animal that bucks. 
buck-rim, n. An obsolescent style of can tie. It differs from a 
bound cantle in having the rear side of its edge fitted with a 



GLOSSARY 383 

rim sometimes 2 inches wide and set at right angles to it. 
The term probably originates from the rim's frequent utili- 
zation as a handhold when an animal pitches or bucks. 
bug, n. An improvised lantern made by fastening a candle in a 
tin can and fitting the latter with a wire baU or handle. 
Com. all parts W. Also col. same section for " lantern." 
bugs, n. Col. all parts W. for " screw worms." 

"To have the bugs": to be tubercular. Col. all parts W. 
Com. SW. 
bulge, n. The outward swell at either side of a saddle fork, 
bull, n. An uncastrated male of the ox kind. 

V. A common term used among stockmen in reference to a 
cow's desire to copulate. 
bulldog, V. A very rough and more or less dangerous form of amuse- 
ment practiced by cattlemen and expert horsemen of the 
West. The bulldogger leaves the saddle at the moment his 
mount carries him alongside a steer, alights with his body 
on the steer's neck or on its head between the horns, seizes 
a horn in either hand, and then throws the steer either by 
sheer brute strength or else by twisting its head to one side 
and holding it there till the steer becomes exhausted and falls. 
bunk, n. (1) A bedstead usually built against and attached to a 
wall. 
(2) The bolster of a log wagon, 
block: The block attached to either end of a bolster to prevent 

logs from rolling off. 
house: A house used as sleeping-quarters. 
V. To sleep in a bunk. 
butte, n. A prominent peak. (French: butte, a target, a land- 
mark.) Pro. beaut, as in beauty. Com. W. 



cabin, n. A small building. Col. S. Cf. Shack. 

cabresto, n. A hair rope. (Sp.: cahresto, a hair rope.) Pro. 

cah-vrase'-toe. Col. SW. 
cache, n. (1) A secreted place in which articles may be tempor- 
arily stored or hidden. Pro. cash. 
(2) The articles stored or hidden in a cache. Com. SW. and 

parts W. 
V. To hide or temporarily store articles. 
calico, n. or a. See Pinto. 
calve, V. To give birth to a calf. 

camino, n. A road. (Sp.: camino, a road.) Pro. cah-me'-no. 
Col. and com. SW. 



384 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

cannon, n. That part of an animal's leg between the knee and 
pastern. 

canon, n. Col. W. for a deep hollow or ravine. (Sp.: canon, a 
hollow.) Pro. can'-yon. 

canthook, n. A tool used in logging. Cf. Peavy. 

cantinas, n. The leather bags supplied field men for use in carrying 
papers, blank forms, stationery, etc. (Sp.: cantinas, cellar, 
canteen.) Pro. can-teen'-as. 

canter, n. A slow gallop. 

V. To travel at a slow gallop. 

cantle, n. The upright rear portion of a saddle-seat. 

cap, n. (1) A small tube closed at one end and loaded with a 

combustible explosive substance, used in detonating dynamite. 

(2) The surface of a road or trail bed. In this case the word 

" cap " refers to the material used rather than to the 

surface presented to travel. Cf. Tread (4). 

cast, V. To throw an animal to the ground and hold it there by 
means of rofies. 

cavallo, n. Col. SW. for horse. (Sp.: cavallo or cahallo, a horse.) 
Pro. cah-wah'-yo. 

cayuse, n. Col. W. and SW. for horse. The cayuse proper is a 
species of small inbred pony originated by the Cayuse Indians. 
Pro. ki'-use or ki-use'-y. 

center fire, n. Col. all parts W. for a single cinch rigged saddle. 

chafe, n. A leather guard attached to a cinch ring to prevent in- 
juries to an animal's side. 
V. To make sore by rubbing. 

chap, V. To whip with a pair of chaparejos or a heavy belt. A 
rough form of amusement or punishment indulged in in most 
parts W. when a " tenderfoot " is to be initiated or an offender 
punished. Pro. shap. 

chaparejos, n. Seatless leather or canvas trousers or leggings worn 
as a protection against brush. (Sp.: diaparejos, leather 
trousers.) Pro. chop-ah-ray'-hos. Com. all parts W. 

chaps, n. Chaparejos. Col. all parts W. Pro. shaps. 

chestnut, n. (1) The tough, horny protuberance appearing above 
the knees and below the hocks at the inner sides of the legs 
of horses, mules, and burros. A smaller chestnut is found at 
the rear of the pastern and is surrounded by the fetlock. 
(2) A chestnut-colored animal, 
a. Of a dark bay color. 

chink, n. A Chinaman. Col, all parts W. 

V. To fill the crevices of a wall with mud or other material. 

chinking, n. The material used in filling the crevices of a wall. 



GLOSSARY 385 

chock, n. A log, stone, or similar article placed beneath a wheel to 
prevent it from revolving. 
V. To place an obstruction beneath a wheel, 
block, n. The obstruction used to prevent a wheel from 
revolving. 
choker, n. A link made larger at one end than at the other. It is 
usually the end link of a chain and is used in lieu of a hook. 
Other links pass freely through the wide end, but are held 
securely when dropped edgewise into the narrow end. Some- 
times known as a " choke hook." 
cholla, n. A genus of herbaceous plants indigenous to SW. and 
some parts of W. It bears a tall, woody central stalk spring- 
ing from a low clump of tough, pointed leaves, and is variously 
known as yucca, mescal, century plant, agave and American 
aloe. (Sp.: cholla, skull, judgment.) Pro. choy'-yah. 
chops, n. Coarsely ground corn. 

chuck, n. (1) An instrument used for holding a tool so it may be 
rotated. 
(2) Food, provisions. Col. all parts W. 
V. To throw the rider. Col. W. 

ribs, n. The first ribs back of the shoulders. Applies to cattle, 
steak, n. The steak immediately over the chuck ribs. 
wagon, n. The wagon used in transporting food, bedding, and 
other supplies on a " cow works." 
chum drill, n. A long drill for use by two men in drilling stone. 

V. To operate a churn drill 
cinch, n. A saddle girth. (Sp.: cincha, a band, a fastening). 

V. To make a saddle girth fast. 
clip, n. (1) The hook at the end of a single-tree into which the 
tug or trace is fastened. 
(2) The amount of wool or mohair taken from a band of sheep 
or goats in one season. Com. among sheep and goat raisers. 
V. (1) To shear an animal's hair or wool close to the body. 

(2) To shear sheep or goats. 

(3) To remove the tuft of hair, or fetlock, at an animal's pastern, 
cockeye, n. The eye at the end of a tug or trace through which 

the single-tree clip passes. 

comb, n. The peak of a roof. 

concha, n. A metal or leather button. (Sp. : concha, a silver shell.) 
Pro. cont'-shah. 

cord, n. A measure of wood 8 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4 feet wide. 
V. To arrange wood symmetrically for measurement. 

cork, V. To injure one hoof by a blow from the shoe on the oppo- 
site hoof. Cf. Interfere, Forge, and Overreach. Col. 
among horsemen for " calk." 



386 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

coronet, n. That part of an animal's leg at the junction of the 

hair and hoof and from which the hoof grows. 
corral, n. A small enclosure in which to confine stock. (Sp. : corral, 
enclosure, yard, playhouse.) Pro. ko-reF. Com. all parts W. 
Cf. Lot. 
V. To enclose stock in a corral. 
See Tbap corral. 
coupling-pole, n. See Reach. 
cow outfit, n. A cattle ranch. 

works, n. The operations involved in rounding up and branding 
cattle, 
cows, n. A general term used by stockmen, particularly in all parts 

W., in reference to cattle regardless of age or sex. 
coyote, n. A small species of wolf. (Mexican: coyotl, a sneak.) 

Pro. ki'-yote or ki-yo'-te. 
crab, n. A geared machine used in raising or erecting heavy weights. 
It is operated by means of one or two cranks, the loose end 
of the intake cable running from the drum to a snub-post. 
cramp, v. To turn the front wheels of a vehicle out of line with 
the rear wheels to facilitate turning the vehicle by backing it. 
crib, n. A pen used for the confinement of stone which is to serve 
as piers. 
V. To gnaw, bite, or suck posts, poles, trees, mangers, etc. 
The term applies usually to horses only. 
cribber, n. An animal addicted to cribbing. 
crimp, n. The crease which binds a cap to the fuse. 

V. To compress the open end of a cap about the fuse. 
crosscut, n. An opening running at about right angles to a mine 
tunnel. 
V. To run a cut-out at one side of a tunnel, 
saw, n. A saw having teeth so constructed as to cut across the 

grain of a timber, 
saw (two-man), n. A crosscut saw fitted with a handle at 
either end and designed for use by two men. 
crow bar, n. A heavy iron bar beveled on two sides of the point 

and used in moving heavy weights. Cf . Pinch bar. 
crown, n. (1) The top of a tree. 

(2) That part of a bridle, hackamore or halter which passes 

upward over an animal's head back of the ears. 

(3) The upper surface of an animal's tooth. 

fire, n. A fire occurring in the tops or crowns of timber. Com. 
NW. 
crutch, n. (1) A pole or other timber inserted in a wheel in such a 
way that the wheel's strength is maintained after the dish 
has been lost. 



GLOSSARY 387 

crutch, (n) (2) A pole placed under the end of an axle and supported 
from the bed in such a way that the wagon may be 
moved by sliding: used when a wheel has been broken 
down. 
curb strap, n. The strap which passes from one bit ring to the 
other beneath an animal's jaws. Used as a means of better 
control, 
cut, n. (1) A trench made through high ground in order to maintain 
a uniform grade. 
(2) A piece of meat or a steak. 
V, (1) To separate certain stock from a herd. 
(2) To castrate. 

D 
dally, n. The turn of a rope about a saddle-horn. 

V. To take several turns of a rope about a saddle-horn in such 
a way that slack may be taken up or paid out quickly if 
necessary. 
dewlap, n. (1) The pendulous skin along the under side of a cow's 
neck, 
(2) An identification mark. 

V. To make an incision in the dewlap for purposes of identi- 
fication. 
diangling, a. or adv. Diagonally. Col. S. and SE. 
dike, n. A line of rock projecting above the surface of the ground. 
dish, n. In an upright wheel, the difference in distance horizontally 
between the outer spoke surfaces at the hub and the outer 
edge of the rim. 
faced, a. With a noticeably sunken profile. 
dobe, n. Adobe. Col. SW. See Adobe. 

dock, V. To cut away a portion of an animal's tail. The operation is 
frequently performed on lambs at the time they are castrated 
and marked. In some sections the meaning of the term is 
restricted to removal of the hair only, and may also be known 
as ** bobbing." 
doe, n. A ewe {q.v.). Col. SW. 

dogey, n. A motherless young calf. Usually applied to one that 
has lost its mother through death. Cf. Maverick. Pro. 
doe'-gay. Col. W. 
double-jack, n. A sledge requiring the use of both hands in drilling 
stone. 
V. To drill stone, one man holding the drill, the other striking, 
tree, n. That part of a wagon gear to which the single-trees 
are attached. Cf. Evener. 
drench, n. A quantity of liquid medicine to be given an animal. 
V. To administer liquid medicine to an animal. 



388 HANDBOOK FOR RA.NGERS AND WOODSMEN 

drift, n. (1) See Crosscut. 

(2) A herd's gradual movement to a new range or location. 
V. (1) To move gradually to a new range or location. 
(2) To depart hurriedly and continue a journey. Col. W. 
fence, n. A length of fence provided for directing the move- 
ments of stock. 
drill, n. (1) An instrument used in driving holes in stone. 

(2) An augur used in boring holes in either wood or metal. 
V. Col. most parts W., meaning to depart. 
drop, V. To give birth to a calf. Thus a calf is said to be " dropped " 

or " calved " rather than born. Cf. Calve. 
dugout, n. (1) An excavation made in the side of a hill and used as 
a room. 
(2) A water-trough made by hewing out the inside of a log. 
dump, n. The accumulation of refuse material at the mouth of a 
tunnel or shaft. 
■V. To throw the rider. Col. AS. 
dutchman, n. A plank nailed to a tree for the purpose of serving 
as a support for barbed or other wires, but designed primarily 
as a means of preventing the wire from being imbedded in 
subsequent growth of the tree. 

E 

earmark, n. An incision made in an animal's ear for purposes of 

identification. 
V. To make an incision in an animal's ear. 
end gate, n. The upright board forming the end of a wagon bed 

or box. Usually known as " head " gate, front, and " tail " 

gate or " tail board," rear. 
epidemic, n. A disease attacking great numbers simultaneously. 
evener, n. See Double-tree. 
ewe, n. A female sheep. See Doe, 
eye splice, n. A loop made in a rope by splicing one end of the rope 

back into itself. 



fell, V. To cut down a tree. Also spelled " fall," this term being 

col. N. and S. woods. 
feller, n. One who fells trees. Generally called " faller." 
felloe, n. A section of the rim of a wagon wheel. Frequently called 

" felly " and " feller." 
fender, n. The broad leather between the rider's leg and the animal 

body, attached to the stirrup strap. 
fetlock, n. The tuft of hair at an animal's pastern joint. 



GLOSSARY 389 

filly, n. A young mare. Usually applied to a mare up to the birth 

of her first colt. 
fire brand, n. (1) A brand made by burning. 

(2) A piece of burning material. 
fistula, n. An abscess having tubes or pipes leading to an internal 

cavity. Frequently, though improperly, called " fistulo." 
flag, n. The pole used by a surveyor to indicate where a line is to 
be run. 
V. (1) To set a flag pole. 

(2) To stop a runaway horse or team. Col. W. 
flake, n. One of the loose sections of a bale of hay. These may 
vary in number in a bale from two to a dozen or more, de- 
pending upon the length and tangle of the grass stems. It is, 
therefore, misleading to say that one flake or two flakes or 
any other number of flakes should be sufficient hay for one 
feed. 
foal, n. A very young colt. 

V. To give birth to a colt. Thus a colt is said to be " foaled " 
(improperly called " foalded ") rather than born. 
fool killer, n. A broken branch left hanging in the top of a tree. 

Com. AS. where logging is carried on. 
foretop, n. That part of an animal's mane which hangs down OA^er 

the face. 
forge, n. A specially constructed furnace used by blacksmiths. 
V. (1) To make an article of iron. 

(2) An animal's action in striking the heel of the forefoot with 
the toe of the hind foot in traveling. Cf. Overreach. 
frog, n. The V-shaped ridge on the sole of a horse's hoof. 

V. To putter about in an aimless manner. Col. W. The 

term doubtless originates from the one used in playing 

the game of Solo or Sluff , wherein a " frog " is the lowest 

bid that can be made. 

fuse, n. A slender, flexible tube filled with combustible material, 

which when ignited conveys a flame to the cap inserted in 

a dynamite cartridge. 



gag runner, n. The iron loop through which the check rein passes 

at or near the upper end of the bridle cheek. 
gall, n. (1) An abrasion caused by friction of a saddle or harness. 
(2) A knot-like growth on leaves, twigs, and branches of trees. 
V. To abrade an animal's skin with an improperly fitting saddle 
or harness. 
gallows frame, n. A structure erected over the mouth of a shaft to 
facilitate hoisting. 



390 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

gambrel, n. A stick used by butchers to keep the legs of a carcass 
spread well apart during the operation of cleaning or washing. 
The ends are sharpened and are thrust into the legs between 
the bone and the ham string, and in addition to spreading the 
legs the gambrel may also be used as a means of support for 
the carcass. 

gather, n. The difference in distance between the front rim edges 
of the same pair of wheels as compared with the distance be- 
tween the rear rim edges. 
V. (1) To assemble stock in a herd. 
(2) To harvest. Col. S. and SE. 

gear, n. (1) The framework of a wagon exclusive of the bed or box. 
(2) Harness. Col. S. and SE. 

gee, n. A word of command used by teamsters to turn a team to 
the right. 

gelding, n. A castrated horse. 

gilt, n. A young sow. Commonly applied to one up to the birth 
■ of her first litter of pigs. 

gin poles, n. Poles used in er cting heavy timbers or beams. 

glut, n. A large wooden wedge used in opening timbers after they 
have been partly split open with smaller iron wedges. 

goose neck, n. An iron hook fitted to the forward end of a wagon 
pole and provided as a means of attaching other teams to the 
pole. The term is also applied to the hook which connects 
the pole with an ox yoke. 

grain rope, n. The rope used in tying sacks of grain or other bulky 
articles to a pack saddle. 

Greaser, n. A Mexican. Col. all parts W. 

Greener, n. A tenderfoot (q.v.). Col. all parts W. 

ground fire, n. A fire occurring in peaty ground. Com. NE, 

grout, n. Concrete made very thin in order to facilitate pouring and 
settling in narrow forms. 



hackamore, n. A halter-like article used in breaking or controlling 

horses. See Jaquima. 
hair brand, n. An indistinct brand resulting from insufficient heat 

or pressure of the iron at the time the brand is applied. 

Occasionally used in reference to a tar or paint brand, and 

frequently in referring to characters burned or clipped in 

an animal's hair or wool. 
ham string, n. The large tendon which connects with the point of 

the hock in an animal's leg. 
V. To make lame by cutting or otherwise injuring the ham 
string. 



GLOSSARY 391 

haw, n. A word of command used by teamsters to turn a team to 

the left. 
headstall, n. Halter; the leather part of a bridle. 
heifer, n. A young cow. Commonly applied to one up to the 

birth of her first calf. 
herd, n. A number of animals grouped together or owned by one 
person. 
V. (1) To confine stock to one place when no fences are avail- 
able. 
(2) The action of other persons in preventing a pitching animal 
from colliding with posts, trees, etc., where a sudden 
stop might injure either it or the rider or both. Col. W. 
hill billy, n. A mountaineer. Col. S. and SE. Cf. Ridge runner. 
hip, V. To injure an animal's hip. 
hipped, a. Having one or both hips injured. 

hobble, n. Any article used in tying an animal's leg's together to 
'revent straying. Frequently spelled " hopple." 
V. (1) To tie an animal's legs together. 

(2) To tie the stirrups together beneath an animal's body. A 
common practice among horsemen when a saddle animal 
is expected to pitch vigorously. Having the stirrups 
fastened in this manner provides increased facilities for 
retaining tiie seat. 
honda, n. The eye in the end of a rope. (Sp.: honda, a sling.) 

Pro. hon'-doo. 
horse camp, n. Winter quarters for horses used in handling cattle. 

In charge of a " wrangler " (q.v.). 
hounds, n. The parts of a wagon gear which brace the axles on the 
pole and reach. Sometimes spelled " hauns " and " hawns." 
housewife, n. A cloth or leather receptacle for sundries used in 
repairing clothes. 



interfere, v. To strike the ankle or pastern joint of one leg with 
the hoof or shoe of the opposite leg. Cf. Cork and Forge. 

iron, n. The abbreviated form of " branding-iron." Com. all 
parts W. 



Jacob's staff, n. The iron-shod wooden pole used as a support for 
a compass. Also known as Jake staff, Jake rod, Jake stick, 
Jake pole, Jim rod, Jim pole and joy stick. 

jaquima, n. An Indian word from which the word " hackamore " 
is derived. Pro. yak'-i-mah. 



392 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

jerk, V. To dry thin strips of meat in the sun. 

jerk line, n. A single Hne used in guiding a team. Customarily one 
steady pull turns the team to the right and three short jerks 
turn it to the left. It is commonly used in teams of four or 
more animals and is attached to the near bit ring of the 
near lead horse. Other animals in the team are trained to 
follow the lead pair. 

jerky, /i. Sun-dried meat. Com. SW. 

jockey, n. The leather which forms the side of a saddle seat imme- 
diately over the fender, 
box, n. A tool box built against an end gate, 
stick, n. A stick used in lieu of a halter rope and designed to 
keep a vicious animal at a distance from the attendant. 

jump weld, n. The attachment of the end of one iron at right 
angles to and against the side of another. 

June II, n. A homestead entered in a National Forest under the 
Act of June 11, 1906. Col. among Forest officers. 

K 

kak, n. A saddle. Sometimes used in reference to a very old horse. 

Col. SW. 
kayak, n. A box frame covered with rawhide and used in packing 

loose articles. Also spelled " kaiak " and " kyack." Pro. 

ki'-ack. Plural, kyax. 
keel, n. Lumbermen's designation of marking crayon. 
kerf, n. The opening resulting from a saw's passage through a 

timber. Commonly expressed in fractions of an inch. 
kid, n. A young goat. 

V. To give birth to a kid. The young is " kidded " or 

" dropped " rather than born. 
king bolt, n. The bolt which connects the forward end of the reach 

with the front axle. 



lamb, n. A young sheep. 

V. To give birth to a lamb. The young is " lambed " or 

" dropped " rather than born, and the ewe is said to " lamb " 

rather than to give birth to young. 
lariat, n. A noosed rope used in catching stock. (Sp. : la reata, a 

rawhide rope used in tying animals together.) Pro. lary-et'. 

Cf. Reata. 
V. To catch stock with a noosed rope. 
lash rope, n. The rope used in tying the top pack to the grain 

pack or pack saddle. 



GLOSSARY 393 

lasso, n. A noosed rope used in catching stock. (Sp. : lazo, a noose.) 

V. To catch stock with a noosed rope. Col. W., " lass." 
latigo, 71. The leather strap which connects the cinch with the rig 

of a saddle. (Sp. : latigar, to lash or make fast.) 
lead, n. The left, or near, side of a horse, wagon, etc. Pro. leed. 
horse, n. The near horse in a team. Also a horse that is to be 

led. 
side, n. The left, or near, side of an animal or team, 
team, n. The foremost animals in a team of four or more. 
lean, a. Applied to mortar carrying a minimum amount of lime or 

cement. 
lean-to, n. A shed or side room. Col. S. and some parts W. 
lepe, n. A motherless calf. (Sp.: lepe, a motherless calf.) Pro. 

lep'-py. Col. SW. Cf. Dogey. 
light, V. To dismount. Col. S. and SE. 

lightered, n. Dry pitch pine. Also known as " lightwood," the 
term probably originating from the quick, bright blaze coming 
from the burning wood. Col. S. and SE. 
lobo, n. A species of wolf that runs or hunts alone. (Sp.: loho, 

a wolf.) Pro. loe'-boe. Also known as " loafer " wolf. 
loco, n. A poisonous range plant. (Sp.: loco, mad, crazy.) 
a. Crazy. Col. W. 
V. To drive frantic. Col. W. 
lode, n. A vein containing metallic ore. Pro. load. 
logey, a. Dull, tired, listless. Applied to a wornout horse. Col. W. 

Pro. loe'-gay. 
log scale, n. (1) A rule or scale which shows the contents of a log 
in board feet. 
(2) The number of board feet contained in all the logs taken 
from a certain area or sawed at a certain time. Cf. 
Mill rl'n. 
lot, n. An enclosure for stock. Col. S. and SE. Cf. Corral. Verb, 

Pen. 
lunger, n. Col. W., especially SW., for a person suffering from 
pulmonary tuberculosis. 

M 

manana, n. Col. W., especially SW., for a person who continually 
and habitually procrastinates. (Sp. : manana, tomorrow.) 
Pro. man-yan'-ah. 

marking-hatchet, n. A light ax bearing the raised letters US on 
the poll and used by Forest officers in marking timber. Also 
known as " branding-hatchet," and "marking-ax." 

marlin-spike, n. A sharp-pointed instrument used in separating 
the strands of a rope. 



394 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

mash, n. A thick mixture of bran and water. 

mattock, n. A double bitted tool used in loosening and moving 
earth. One bit is in line with the handle, the other at right 
angles to it. 
maul, n. A heavy wooden mallet or hammer. It differs from a 
beetle in having the head and handle in one piece and in line 
lengthwise with each other. Cf. Beetle. 
maverick, n. An unbranded calf. Usually applied to one that has 
left its mother after being weaned. The term is said to have 
originated in Texas, where one Maverick, observing that other 
stock raisers branded their animals, concluded the most dis- 
tinctive evidence of ownership that he could use would be 
the absence of any brand whatever on his stock. He accord- 
ingly claimed all unbranded stock. 
mecate, n. A hemp rope. (Sp.: mecate, a hemp rope.) Col. SW. 

Pro. may-cot'-ay. 
mesa, n. A high plateau or flat-topped peak. (Sp. : mesa, a table.) 

Com. W. Pro. may'-sah. 
mill, n. -(1) An establishment where ore is crushed or refined or 
lumber is sawed or dressed. 
(2) The result of a herd of frightened horses or cattle swimming 
frantically about in a circle, each trying to escape from 
the water by climbing upon another's back. Com. all 
parts W. 
V. (1) To crush and refine ore. 

(2) To swim frantically about in a circle. Sometimes used in 
reference to the restless and uneasy movements of a herd 
on land. Also applied to a throng of people who con- 
tinually move about. Col. W. 
run, n. The number of board feet of lumber actually sawed 
out regardless of the amount indicated by a log scale. 
monument, n. A pile of stone set up to mark a line or corner of 

land. 
morral, n. A feed bag designed to be suspended from an animal's 
head. (Sp.: morral, a feed bag.) Pro. mo-rel'. Com. all 
parts W. 
muck, n. Mud and refuse material from a mine. 

V. To loosen and remove muck. 
mucker, n. One who removes muck. 

mud, n. An injection used by drillers to indicate that for some 
reason striking must be temporarily suspended. 
Also Col. AS. for " mortar." 
muley, n. A naturally hornless individual of any horn-bearing 
species. Also applied to a McClellan saddle or any other 
saddle not fitted with a horn. 



GLOSSARY 395 

muley, a. Without horns. The term can not be applied to an animal 

that has been dehorned, 
mustang, n. See Broncho. (Sp.: mesteno, wild.) 

N 

nanny, n. A ewe. Col. among sheep and goat raisers. 

near side, n. An animal's left side. See Lead side. 

neat, a. Applied to mortar having only lime or cement for the body. 

neck yoke, n. See Breast yoke. In reference to the term as applied 
to work with oxen, the word " neck " is usually omitted and 
"ox" is frequently, though not always, substituted. 

nester, n. A settler, usually a homesteader. Col. W. 

nigh side, n. See Near side. Col. S. and SE. 

o 

off color, a. A term applied to stock not colored like others of the 
herd. Thus, a black cow in a herd of Herefords would be 
called " off color," and in most instances would not sell for 
as high a price as the Herefords, although the latter might 
not be as large or in as good condition. 

off side, n. An animal's right side. 

orejano, -a, n. A maverick, male or female, respectively. (Sp.: 
orejano, -a, unclaimed.) Col. SW. Pro. ory-han'ay. 

outlaw, n. A term applied to a horse too wild or vicious to be 
ridden or worked. Also applied to other animals that have 
never been branded, or having been branded have never 
received any further attention from their owners, and have 
been allowed to run wild. 

overreach, v. To place the hind foot at a point on the ground in 
advance of where the fore foot was set. Improperly called 
" forging." Cf. Interfere. 

P 
pacer, n. An animal that moves both legs of the same side simul- 
taneously. 
paint brand, n. See Tar brand. 
paling, n. See Picket. Col. S. 

pannier, n. A leather or canvas bag used in packing. Cf. Kayak. 

peavy, n. A tool used in moving logs. It differs from a canthook 

in having the lower end armed with a pike instead of a lip. 

picket, n. One of the upright pieces in a fence made of sharpened 

stakes or scantlings. 

V. To tie an animal to a picket pin. 

pin, n. An iron stake to be used in lieu of a post and to which 

a grazing animal may be tied, 
rope, n. The rope by which an animal is tied to a picket pin. 
piebald, n. or a. See Pinto. 



396 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

pinch bar, n. A heavy iron bar beveled on one side of the point 
and used in moving or raising heavy weights. Cf. Crow bar. 

pinto, n. A spotted pony. Also known W. and SW. as piebald, 
calico, paint, and speckled. (Sp.: pinto, spotted.) 

pitch, n. (1) The degree of slope of a roof. 

(2) The difference in distance between the lower rim edges of 

the same pair of wheels as compared with the distance 
between the upper rim edges. Frequently known as 
" tread " or " set." 

(3) A name applied to the sap of a pine tree. 

V. A horse's action in trying to unseat it's rider. Pitching dif- 
fers from bucking in being more vigorous and irregular, 
and action is prolonged to a greater degree. 
placer, n. The short term for "placer claim" or "placer mine." 
Nearly all such claims or mines are located on gold-bearing 
streams, where gold-dust may be se"parated from the earth by 
" panning," an operation in which a fiat, shallow pan is filled 
with earth and water and then shaken vigorously. The water 
is allowed to spill gradually and takes the refuse material 
with it, the gold settling to the bottom of the pan. Another 
method is to perform a similar operation by means of an 
apparatus known as a " rocker." Still another method of 
securing the gold is to throw the gold-bearing earth into a 
" flume," through which water flows swiftly. Bars or " rif- 
fles " across the bottom of the flume catch the gold as it 
settles. Pro. "plaser," as in plaster. 
point, n. A prominent peak or landmark. Col. S. Cf. Butte. 
V. (1) To mark an animal's ear with both an over- and an 

under-slope, thus leaving it pointed. 
(2) To ride ahead of a herd of cattle being moved and thus 
supply them with an object to follow. 
pole, n. A wagon tongue. 

strap, n. Th.e strap of a harness which connects the breast 
yoke of the wagon gear with the belly band or breeching 
of the harness. 
poll, n. The head of an animal or tool. 

pommel, n. The highest part of a saddle immediately before the 
seat. 
slicker, n. A water-proof coat having very long, wide skirts 
designed to protect both the rider and the saddle from 
rain. 
poncho, n. A sleeveless, water-proof garment with a hole at the 
center, through which the wearer's head is thrust. (Sp.: 
poncho, lazy.) (Col. Sp.: poncho, a sleeveless garment.) Com. 
W. Pro. pont'-cho. 



GLOSSAEY 397 

port, n. The arch in the bar of a bridle bit. 

pull, n. The distance, on the ground, between a telephone pole and 

the point where it should be set to be in direct line with the 

first pole at either side of it. 
V. To pull leather: to seize some part of the saddle with one 
or both hands when an animal pitches. 
puncher, n. One who works with cattle. Col. all parts W. The 

term originates from the practice of prodding cattle that 

persist in lying down while being shipped by rail or boat. 
puncture, n. A small hole resulting from the entrance of a nail, 

wire or similar article in a horse's hoof. 

Q 

quarter corner, n. A corner set approximately half-way between 

section corners on the same line, 
crack, n. A perpendicular crack in an animal's hoof. 
quartering, a. Diagonally. 
quirt, n. A short riding- whip of sewn or plaited leather. (Sp.; 

cuerda, a rope.) 
quitter, n. A balky animal. 
quittor, n. An abscess at the coronet. 



racket, n. An animal that travels in a manner between that of a 

trot and a gallop. 
rake, n. The distance from the vertical to which a telephone pole 

inclines outward when set in a curv^e. Designed to offset the 

extra strain imposed by pull (.q.v.). 
ram, n. An uncastrated sheep, 

V. To tamp concrete. 
ranch, n. Either a stock- or grain-farm of any size. Contrary to a 

general belief of persons from the East, a ranch may consist 

of no more than two or three acres, or may even include no 

more than a fraction of one acre. (Sp. : rancho, a stock farm.) 
V. To operate a ranch. 
ranchero, n. A stock raiser or a farmer. (Sp.: ranchero, one who 

conducts the business of a ranch.) Pro. ranch-er-roo' or 

ran-chay'-roe. 
range, n. (1) The strip of land lying between north-and-south 

lines located approximately 6 miles apart. Such a strip of 

land is described as being east or west of a given meridian. 

(2) The area upon which stock grazes. 

(3) The forage secured from a range by stock. 
V. To graze stock on a certain area 



398 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

raster, n. See Arrastra. 

V. To crush ore in an arrastra. 
rattler, n. See Roarer. Also the abbreviated form for " rattle- 
snake." 
reach, n. (1) The pole which connects the front and rear axle of a 
wagon. 
(2) The distance an animal steps in traveling, 
plate, n. An iron plate connecting the forward ends of the 
rear hounds in a wagon gear and securing them to the 
reach. 
reata, n. A rope, usually though not always of rawhide, used in 
catching stock. (Sp. : la reata, a rawhide rope used for tying 
animals together.) Pro. ray-ah'-tah. Com. W. and SW. 
remuda, n. A reserve herd of mounts. (Sp.: remuda, exchange; a 
change of shift when stock is being held in herd.) Pro. ray- 
moo 'tha. Com. SW. 
renegade, n. Sfee Outlaw. 

rich, a. Applied to mortar carrying a large amount of lime or cement, 
rick, n. (1) A measure of wood 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and of the 
same width as the length of the sticks. Cf. Cord. 
(2) A windrow of freshly cut hay. Com. S. 
V. (1) To pile wood symmetrically for measurement. 
(2) To rake hay into long piles preparatory to removal from 
the field. Col. S. 
ilie, n. A journey by horseback. Com. AS. 

V. To work with cattle or other stock, 
ridge runner, n. A mountaineer. Col. SW. 
rig, n. That part of a saddle to which the cinches are attached. 
rim, n. (1) The edge of a mesa. Com. W. 

(2) That part of a carriage wheel which corresponds to the 
felloes of a wagon wheel. It differs from the latter in 
carrying half the number of the spokes in a wheel while 
a felloe carries only two spokes, 
fire, n. Applied to a single cinch rigged saddle. 
rise, n. (1) The perpendicular distance between the plates and the 
comb of a roof. 
(2) A gentle slope. Col. S. 
rive, V. To split out boards, shakes or palings. 
roach, v. To trim an animal's mane or tail. Usually applied to 

mules. 
roan, n. A roan-colored animal. 

a. Of a mixed color, consisting usually of white or gray spots 
in bay. 
roarer, n. An animal that breathes in an audible manner as the 
result of a throat affection.. 



GLOSSARY 399 

rodeo, n. See Roundup. (Sp.: rodear, to go a roundabout way.) 

Pro. ro-day'-o or ro-day'-er. Com. NW., W. and SW. 
roll, n, A stuffed leather pad used by riders to prevent injury 

against the saddle fork or horn. 
rope, n. and v. See Lasso. 

burn, n. An injury inflicted on an animal's leg by the sliding 

motion of a rope drawn swiftly and violently against it. 

rosette, n. An ornamental button used on saddles and harness. 

It differs from a concha usually in having a loop at the back 

instead of eyes through the center for the passage of thongs or 

straps. 
roughage, n. Grass, hay, fodder, etc. Com. W. 
roughness, n. See above. Com. S. and SE. 
roundup, n. The assembling of all or a part of the stock on one 

range. 
V. To assemble stock. 
rowfel, n. The spiked wheel of a spur, or the roller in a bit. 

V. To spur an animal vigorously. 
rub iron, n. An iron plate attached to the lower corner of a wagon 

bed for protection of the bed when the fore wheel is cramped 

under it. 
run, n. (1) The horizontal distance between the plate and the 

comb of a roof. 

(2) The amount of ore milled or lumber sawed at one time. 

(3) The country covered in a day's cruise. Col. among recon- 

noissance men. 
V. (l) To gallop at a high rate of speed. 

(2) To run an iron: To own, lease or otherwise handle the stock 

bearing that brand. 

(3) To run a brand: To change it by superimposing another 

upon it. 
running iron, n. A straight iron rod used in tracing brands. 



safety belt, n. A heavy leather belt used by telephone linemen. 

strap, n. A heavy leather strap used by telephone linemen in 
securing themselves to a pole when the desired height 
has been reached. 
sag, n. The distance below the horizontal to which a telephone 

wire is allowed to hang at or near the center of the span. 
scantling, n. A thin, narrow strip of lumber. The term usually 
applies to pieces of odd lengths, uneven edges and other 
irregular surfaces. 
scissor bill, n. A mountaineer. Com. S. and SE. Cf. Hill billy. 



400 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

scratch, v. To draw the spurs along an animal's sides from its neck 
or shoulders to its flanks or thighs, thus inducing it to pitch 
more vigorously. 
screw bug, n. See Screw worm. Col. all parts W. 

worm, n. The larval stage of a fly (Compsomyia macelleria) 
which attacks open sores and wounds. 
set, n. (1) The cutting thickness of a saw. 

(2) See Pitch (2). 

(3) A corruption of " site." Thus, a good " set," instead of a 

good " site," is frequently used in reference to the loca- 
tion of a sawmill, and may include such features as the 
contour of the ground, the amount of timber available, 
and all other factors which help to make the site desirable. 
shack, n. A small building. Com. W. Cf. Cabin. 
shake, n. (1) A flat piece of split timber used as a shingle. 
(2) The chill caused by ague. Col. S. 
V. To shiver with ague. Col. S. 
shank, n. (1) That part of an animal's leg between the knee and 
the foot; usually applies to cattle. Cf. Cannon. 
(2) That part of a tool which connects the handle with the 
acting part. 
shear, n. One of a pair of gin poles. 

n. To cut or clip away wool or mohair of sheep or goats. 
sheave, n. The wheel of a pulley. Also known as " shive " and 

" shiv." 
shim, n. A thin wedge used to align a plank. 

V. To align a plank by means of a thin wedge. 
sill, n. The lowest timber in the frame of a building. 
silla, n. Col. SW. for saddle. (Sp.: silla, chair or seat.) Pro. 

see'-yah. 
single^footer, n. An animal that raises only one foot at a time in 
traveling, 
jack, n. A sledge hammer for use in one hand in drilling, 
tree, n. That part of a wagon gear to which the traces are 
hooked. Frequently known as "whiffle" tree, and improp- 
erly called " swingle " tree. 
sitfast, n. A corn-like growth caused in an animal's back by con- 
stant pressure. 
skein, n. The iron covering at the end of an axle and upon which 

the wheel revolves. 
skew back, a. Having a slight downward curvature along the back. 

Applies to hand saws. Cf. Sway back. 
slavers, n. Excessive secretions of saliva. Also spelled " slabbers " 
and " slobbers." 



GLOSSARY 401 

sleeper, n. A horizontal supporting timber of a floor or ceiling; 
usually applied to the first. Cf. Stringer. 
V. To change a lightly burned brand by burning a heavier one 
over some portion of it. 
sleeve, n. (1) That part of a carpenter's brace which covers the 
chucks. 

(2) Part of a wagon skein. 

(3) A double tube used in splicing copper telephone wire, 
slicker, n. A water-proof garment with narrow skirts. Cf . Pommel 

SLICKER. 

slough, V. To peel away, as dead skin. Pro. sluff. 
snub, n. The turn of a rope about a snub-post. 

V. To take a number of turns about a post in such a way that 

the rope may be released quickly, 
post, n. The post to which a rope is snubbed. 
sombrero, n. A hat, usually of the wide-brimmed felt variety. 
(Sp. : som6ra, shade.) Pro. som-bray'-ro. Col. W., " sombo." 
sorrel, n. A sorrel-colored animal. 

a. Of a light bay color. 
spade, n. An inverted V-shaped attachment placed on the bar of a 

bit designed for the control of vicious animals. 
span, n. (1) A team of two animals; usually applied to mares or 
mules. 

(2) The length of a telephone wire between two poles. 

(3) The distance between two supports of a bridge. 
spay, V. To remove the ovaries. 

spike, n. The foremost animal in a team having an odd horse in 
the lead, 
team, n. A team with an extra animal in the lead. 
spile, n. A length of sumac, elder, or similar wood with the pith 
removed. It is inserted in a hole bored in a tree and serves 
as a spout by which sap may be carried to a bucket. Com. 
all parts E. 
spill, n. A rolled or twisted paper used in lieu of a match after 
being ignited at an open fire. Com. S. and SE. 
V. To throw the rider. Col. all parts W. 
splint, n. (1) An unnatural growth on the bone of a horse's leg and 
due to a bruise or blow. It seldom appears except on the 
foreleg and below the knee. 
(2) A strip of padded wood or other material used to hold the 
ends of fractured bones together till they knit. 
spreader, n. A strap bearing an iron ring through which the check 
of a line passes. The other end is buckled into a hame 
staple. The object of a spreader is to provide greater free- 
dom of motion in the use of the check. 



402 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

Stag, n. Any male animal castrated after the age of about four 
years. 

stall, n. A compartment in a stable for an animal. 

V. To overload a team or drive them into a place from which 
they can not extricate the load. 

stampede, n. A wild rush of excited cattle or horses. 

V. To frighten cattle or horses till they run wildly, all in the 
same or different directions. 

stamp* iron, n. A branding iron bearing a certain character at one 
end. 

stave, n. One form of the word " stay." Col. S. and SE. See 
below. 

stay, n. A short post or paling set loosely in a panel of fence to 
strengthen it. 
V. To brace a fence with stays. 

steer, n. A castrated young male of the ox kind. 

stem, n. The bole or trunk of a tree. 

straightedge, n. A plank, usually about 10 feet long, dressed ex- 
actly straight along one edge and used by carpenters in 
leveling and plumbing. 

Stretcher, n. A substitute for a single- or double-tree. A chain 
provides a means of central attachment and is fitted with 
hooks or clevises into which cockeyes or other stretchers may 
be fastened. The ends of the chain are held apart by a 
stick or rod having each end sharpened with a shoulder and 
thrust into a link at the desired distance from the end of the 
chain. Also known in some localities as a " spreader." 

string, n. (1) A flight of stairs. 

(2) A number of extra saddle animals held in reserve for alter- 

nate use. 

(3) Col. all parts W. for lasso (q.v.). 

stringer, n. A supporting timber of a floor or ceiling; usually ap- 
plied to the latter. Also applies to the floor timbers of a 
bridge. Cf. Sleeper. 
stub, n. A short post set beside a telephone pole and provided as a 
means of re-enforcement. 
V. To brace a telephone pole with a stub. 
stump sucker, n. See Cribber. 

surface fire, n. A fire occurring in the litter on the surface of the 
ground. Com. AS. 
measure, n. The method of computing lumber in units of 
square feet regardless of the thickness of the blanks. 
swab, n. A slender, flexible stick wrapped with cloth at one end and 
used in forcing obstructions down a cow's throat. 
V. To force an obstruction from the throat to the stomach by 
means of a stick. 



GLOSSARY 403 

swamp, V. To clear away brush and other obstructions or debris 

as in clearing out for a road or trail or telephone line or in 

logging. 
swamper, n. One who swamps or " swamps out." 
sway back, a. Abnormally low in the back. Applied to horses. 

Cf. Skew back. 
sweller, n. An animal that inflates the lungs as the saddle cinch 

is tightened. 



tail board, n. See End gate. 

down, V. To throw an animal by pulling it to one side by the 

tail, 
gate, n. See End gate, 
tailings, n. Refuse material from a mine. 

tally, n. (1) The number of calves born in a herd in one year. Thus 
a stock raiser may assume that the number of his entire herd 
is equal to two, three, or four times the number of calves 
branded, depending upon whether or not there has been a 
good " calf crop," and in this way keep a fairly accurate check 
on the number of cattle he owns. Sales, slaughters, and losses 
are, of course, deducted from the number thus obtained. 
(2) A unit of measure used by surveyors; usually 10 chains. 
tamp, V. To pack earth or other material about posts, or poles, or 
over shots by repeated slight strokes of a crow bar or similar 
tool. 
tamping, n. The material packed about posts, poles, etc 
tap, n. (1) The burr or nut which holds a wagon wheel to the 
skein. 
(2) The abbreviated form of "tapadera" (q. v.). Col. all parts W. 
V. To pierce an animal's side at such a point and in such a 
manner that internal gases may escape from the paunch. 
The operation as performed by veterinaries involves the 
use of a trocar and canula. It' is frequently resorted 
to as a means of relief for cattle suffering from bloat, but 
is adopted only as a last recourse in cases of horses 
suffering from colic. 
tapadera, n. The leather covering of a stirrup. (Sp.: tapar, to 

cover.) 
tar brand, n. A brand made by smearing tar or paint on an animal's 
hair or wool. Usually applied to sheep and goats. Also 
known as " paint " brand. 
tenderfoot, n. A person unacquainted with Western customs. Col. 

all parts W. 
thimble, n. See Skein. 



404 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN 

thumb, V. To draw the ends of the thumbs suddenly and simul- 
taneously along both sides of an animal's neck in a forward 
or diagonally upward direction. This usually induces a half- 
broken animal to pitch. 
top fire, n. A fire occurring in the crowns or tops of timber. Also 
known as " crown " fire. Com. NW. 
pack, n. Bedding, tents, etc., placed over the grain pack. 
touley, n. A tourist. Col. SW. A helper about an oil well is 

known as a " tooley." 
track, w. The distance, on the ground, from center to center of tires 
of the same pair of wheels. 
V. The action of the rear wheels in following the path of the 
fore wheels. 
trailer, n. A wagon attached and pulled behind another. 
trap, n. A name loosely applied to several varieties of rock of 
volcanic origin, 
corral, n. A corral fitted with a gate so arranged that it may 
be opened from the outside by an animal attempting to 
reach the bait, usually salt, placed just inside the gate. 
The gate closes automatically after the animal has passed 
through and can not be opened from the inside. Such 
corrals are used chiefly in rough or mountainous country 
inaccessible to horsemen and in corraling stock too wild 
to be caught otherwise. 
tread, n. (1) The width, from front to back, of a stair step. 

(2) Used in some localities with reference to track, and in others 
meaning width of tire. Cf. Gather. 
trocar, n. A large, hollow needle, or a needle encased in a tube, used 
in tapping cattle. 



U 

undercut, n. A notch cut into a tree to xacilitate felling it in a de- 
sired direction. Sometimes designated as " kerf." 
V. To notch a tree for felling. 

underrunner, n. The strap which connects the breeching with the 
pole strap in a harness. 



vaquero, n. Col. SW. for one whose profession is breaking horses 
or handling cattle. (Sp.: vaquero, a "cowboy.") Pro. 
buck-a-roo' or buck-kay'-roe. 

vault, n. To mount an animal by springing into the saddle without 
the aid of the stirrup. 



GLOSSARY 405 

vent, n. Cancelation of a brand by reproducing it in fac-simile on 
the shoulder of the same side. The term is probably either 
a corruption or a derivative of the verb " vend." 
V. To cancel a brand by reproducing it in fac-simile. 

voids, n. The interstices between fragments of stone or grains of 
sand used in concrete. 

volt, n. The unit of electro-motive force in use among electricians, 
and defined legally in terms of the ampere and ohm. 

voltage, n. Electro-motive force reckoned in volts. 

W 

warble, n. A grub hatched from an egg deposited in the backs of 

cattle by the gadfly. 
wether, n. A castrated sheep; also used in reference to a castrated 

goat. 
wheel horse n. One of the animals in the team next to the load; 

usually applied to the near animal. 
whiffle-tree, n. See Single-tree. 

whim, n. A machine fitted with a drum about which a cable works 
. in hoisting material from a shallow shaft. 
horse, n. The animal used to furnish power in revolving a 
whim. 
wind-broken, n. Chronic suffering from impaired respiration, due 
usually to over-exertion; applies to horses, 
sucker, n. See Cribber. 
withers, n. The high, bony part of a horse's anatomy immediately 

over the shoulders. 
wolf, n. See Warble. 

wrangler, n. One who " wrangles " or takes care of saddle animals 
used in handling cattle. 



INDEX 



Numbers refer to pages; illustrations are indicated by an 
Eisterisk (*j after the page number. 



Abscesses, 254 

Administering medicine to stock, 

266 
Administrative districts, 341 
Adze, 173* 
Age of cattle, 295 

of horses, 272 
Ailments, 297 

Biliousness, 297 

Bleeding ac the nose, 301 

Chapped hands, 302 

Chilblains, 301 

Cholera morbus, 300 

Corns, 301 

Cramps, 300 

Diarrhea, 300 

Dysentery, 300 

Felon, 301 

Headache, 300 

Ingrowing toe-naUs, 302 

Malaria, 298 

Sore lips, 301 

Sore lungs, 301 

Sore throat, 301 

Toothache, 301 
Aihnents and injuries, 296 
Animal equipment, 24 

Bells, 27 

Combs and brushes, 27* 

Feed bags, 26* 

Halters, 24* 

Hobbles, 25* 

Picket pin and rope, 26* 
Antidotes, 309 
Antiseptics, 296 
Appendix, 341 
Apples, preparation of, 221 
Axes, 170 

Belt ax, 173 

Broad ax, 171, 172* 

Care of, 173 



Axes, 

Double bitted ax, 171* 

FiUng, 174 

Grinding, 173 

Hand ax, 172* 

Handles, inserting, 175 
Making new, 174 
Removal of broken, 174 

Pole ax, 170* 

Whettmg, 174 



Baking powder bread, 213 

Balls or piUs, 266 

Bar irons, 281 

Barring out, 284* 

Beans, preparation of, 220 

Bedding, 7 

Bed roU, 152* 

Beef, cuts of, 216* 

Beer, recipe for, 224 

BeUs, 27 

Bihousness, 297 

Bisctiits, preparation of, 213 

Bits, 122 

Bridle, 12* 

Carpenter's, 123* 
Bites, dog or snake, 307 
Blackleg, 258 
Blands, 309 
Blanket, saddle, 13 
Blasting, 74 

Blastiag out boulders, 80 
BlockhoUng, 80, 81* 
Mudcapping, 80* 
Snakehohng, 81* 

Blasting out trees and sttmaps, 
81, 82*, 83*, 84* 

Caps, 75 

Charges, 369 

Crimper, 76* 

Djmamite, 75 



407 



408 



INDEX 



Blasting, 

Firing, 79 

Fuse, 76 

Inserting cap in cartridge, 77* 

Loading, 78 

Misfires, 79 

Mistakes to be avoided, 84 

Preparing the charge, 76 

Attaching cap to cartridge, 

77* 
Attaching cap to fuse, 76* 
AttacMng fuse to cartridge, 
77* 

Tamping, 78 
Bleeding at the nose, 301 
Blind staggers, 248 
Bloat, 257 
Board rule, 189* 
Bootees, 5 
Boots, riding, 5 

Rubber, 6 
Bots, 245 

Brace, carpenter's, 122, 123* 
Branding rig, 281* 
Brands, 280, 283* 

Arbitrary symbols, 287*. 288 

Army brand, 286* 

Cancellation of. 282, 284* 
Barring out, 284* 
Venting, 284* 

Combination, 288, 289* 

Conventional letters and figures, 
286* 

Fire, 280 

Inscribed, 284 

Location of, 282 

Other conventional characters, 
287* 

Paint, 285 

Reading, 288 

Rimning, 290* 

Sleepering, 290 

Tar, 286* 
Bread, baking powder, 213 

Com, 213 

Potato, 213 

Rice, 213 

Rye, 213 

Salt rising, 212 

Sour dough, 213 

Yeast, 212 



Bridges, 66, 67* 
Bridles, 10, 11* 
Bruises, on animals, 253 

On the human body, 303 
Buildings, 85 

Attachment of corner studding, 
87* 

Attachment of plates, 89* 

Attachment of ribs to studding, 
89* 

Attachment of sleepers, 87* 

Attachment of stringers to 
plate, 89* 

Attacliment of studding, 87* 

Classifications, 86 
Box frames, 91 
Full frames, 86 
Half frames, 90 
Log frames, 92 

Cornice, 92 

Door and window casings, 98 

Estimates, 87 

Foundations, 85 

Hog trough corner, 91* 

Hog trough sill, 86* 

Laying the floor, 97 

Laying the roof, 92 

Matched flooring, 97 

Materials, 85 

Nails required for shake roof, 96 

Nails required for shingle roof, 94 

Notch for wall logs, 92* 

Rafters cut too long, 89* 

Rafters cut too short, 89* 

Saddle board, 96 

Self-supporting roof, 90* 

Shakes, 95 

Shakes reqmred, 96 

Sheeting, 93 

Shingles required, 94 

Slungling, 93 

Studdmg braces, 89* 

Truss roof, 91* 

Unmatched flooring, 97 

Walls, 97 

Water board, 98* 

Wmd beam, 90* 
Burns, on animals, 252 

On the human body, 30? \ 

Bush hook, 62* ^ 

Butchering, 225 



INDEX 



409 



Cakes, buckwheat, 214 
Flour, 214 
Johnny, 214 
Potato, 214 
Rice, 214 
Camp fires, 320 
Building, 320 
Care of, 321 
Fuel woods, 320 
Location of, 320 
Camp sites, 319 
AccessibiUty, 319 
Fuel, 319 
Location of, 319 
Protection, 320 
Protection of the public health, 

322 
Water, 319 
Camp tables and seats, 218* 
Canned goods, 211 
Canthook, 180* 
Carpenter's kit, 119 
Bits, auger, 122, 123* 

Car, 122, 123* 
. DrUl, 123* 

Expansive, 122, 123* 

Gunlet, 123*, 124 
BjKice, 122, 123* 
Caliper, 125, 126* 
Caliper rule, 126 
Chisels, 124, 125* 
Claw-hammer, 126* 
Compass, 125, 126* 
Files, 126 

Saw, 126 

Wood, 126 
Grindstone, 127* 
Handsaws, 119 

Crosscut, 119, 120* 

Fihng, 120 

Keyhole, 121* 

Rip, 121 

Setting, 121 
Level-plumb, 125* 
Monkey-wrench, 126* 
Planes, block, 124* 

Jack, 124* 
Square, 122, 127 
Whetstone, 127* 



Carpenter's square, 127 
Board scale, 129* 
Diagonal scale, 128* 
Graduations, 128 
Improvised, 136, 137* 
Octagon rule, 132*, 135* 

To lay off octagons without 
the rule, 135* 
One-hundredth-inch scale, 129 
Other uses, 132 
Parts, 127 

Pitch table, 131, 132* 
Rafter table, 130* 
Tables and scales, 128 
To bisect an angle without a 

square, 136, 137* 
To erect a perpendicular with- 
out a square, 136* 
To lay off a lookout, 134* 
To lay off rafters, 132, 133* 
To lay off stair strings, 134* 
To obtain the center of a circle, 

135* 
To obtain the center of a rect- 
angle, 135*, 136 
To obtain rafter lengths, 133* 
Catfish woimds, 307 
Cattle, ages of, 295 
Diseases of, 257 
Blackleg, 258 
Bloat, 257 
Choking, 261 
Cowpox, 259 

Foot-and-mouth disease, 260 
Foul feet, 260 
Loss of cud, 258 
Lump jaw, 259 
Mange, 259 
Milk fever, 261 
Screw worms, 262 
Tuberculosis, 260 
Warbles, 262 
Throwing, 262* 
Cement, natural, 99 

Portland, 99 
Centiped, 306* 
Centiped woimds, 307 
Cereals, 215 
Chaparejos, 18, 19* 
Chapped hands, 302 
Chilblains, 301 



410 



INDEX 



Chisels, 125* 
Chocolate, 224 
Choking, 261 
Cholera, in hogs, 265 

Morbus, 300 
Chopping, 175 
Clawhammer, 126* 
Clothing, 1, 9 
Bootees, 5 
Boots, riding, 5' 

Rubber, 6 
Cap, 2 
Coat, 2, 10 
Coat sweater, 2 
Hat, 2 

To use as a drinking- 
cup, 2 
Heel plates, 4 
Hol> nails, 4 
Hose supporters, 6 
Moccasins, 6 
Sliirt, 3, 9 
Shoe calks, 4, 10 
Shoe strings, 4 
Slicker, 3 
Socks, 6, 10 
Storm rubbers, 6 
Trousers, 3, 9 
Underwear, 3, 9 
Work shoes, 3 
Cocoa, 223 
Coffee, 223 
Colic, spasmodic, 241 

Wind, 240 
Compass, carpenter's, 125, 
126* 
Saw, 121 

Standard Forest Service, 
200 
Concrete work, 99 
Aggregate, 101 
Cinders, 101 
Crushed stone, 101 
Gravel, 101 
Cement, 99 
Natural, 99 
Portland, 99 
Cement finish, 104 
Concrete, 99 
Concrete blocks, 104 
Fining forms, 103 



Concrete work. 
Forms, 103 

Material required, 362 
Mixing, 102 
Proportions, 100 
Reenforcement, 102 
Sand, pit, 100 
River, 101 
Sea, 101 
Setting, 103 
Water, 102 
Confusion of directions, 322 
Construction work, 31 
Cooking, field, 210 
Biscuits, 213 
Bread, 211 
Cakes, 214 
Canned goods, 211 
Cereals, 215 
Drinks, 223 

Equipment, for stations, 28 
For temporary camps, 29 
Eggs, 219 
Fish, 217 
Fruits, 221 
Ginger snaps, 223 
Jams, 222 
Jellies, 222 
Mush, 214 
Pickles, 222 
Pie crust, 223 
Pies, 223 

Pudding, fruit, 223 
Rice, 221 
Sandwiches, 221 
Utensils, care of, 224 
Vegetables, 219 
Copperheads, 316 
Cordm-oy, 68*, 69 
Cornbread, 213 
Commeal mush, 214 
Corns, 301 
Cowpox, 259 

Cracked wheat mush, 214 
Cramps, 300 
Crowbar, 62* 
Crown fires, 208 
Culverts, 66, 68* 
Curry combs and brush, 27* 
Cuts, on animals, 252 
On the human body, 302 



INDEX 



411 



Degrees, relation of, to per cent, 

354 
Demulcents, 296 
Dewlaps, 283*, 294 
Diarrhea, 300 
Diseases of cattle, 257 

Of hogs, 265 

Of horses, 240 

Of sheep, 263 
Disinfectants, 296 
Dislocations, 304 
Distemper, 242 
Dog bites, 307 
Drenches, 266 
Drenching cattle, 267 

Horses, 267 

With a syringe, 267 
Drilling, rock, 72 
Drinks, beer, 224 

Chocolate, 224 

Cocoa, 223 

Coflfee, 223 

Lemonade, 224 

Tea, 223 ' 
Driving, 167 
Drowning, 305 
Duffle bags, 7 
Dynamite, composition of, 75 

Strength, 75 

Use of different strengths, 75 
Dysentery, 300 



E 



Ear Buttons, 294* 

Loops, 294* 

Marks, 291, 293* 

Punch and dies, 291* 

Tags, 294* 
Eggs, preparation of, 219 
Elevations, to ascertain distant, 

356 
Emetics, 309 
Equipment, 1 

Animal, 24 

Cooking, for stations, 28 
For temporary camps, 29 

For a field trip, 9 

Packing, 20 



Equipment, 
Personal, 1 
Riding, lo 



Faint, 304 
Farcy-Glanders, 243 
Fastenings, 325 
Feed bags, 26* 
Felon, 301 
Fences, 107 

Barbed wire, 112* 
Brush, 112 
Comer posts, 115 

Setting and bracing, 115* 
Gates, 117* 
Guy, 118* 
Hinges, 118* 
Tie, 118* 
Lightning-rods, 117 
Line posts, 116 

Setting or driving, 116 
Logs, 108* 
Paling, 112* 
Pickets, 111* 
Plank, 112 
Post and rail, 110* 
Rack for sharpening posts, 116* 
Rail, 108, 109* 
Stakes and riders, 109* 
Stone, 107, 108* 
Woven wire, 114* 
Stretcher, 114* 
Field work in the Philippine 

Islands, 338 
Fire brands, 280 
Fire fighting, 205 

Classification of fires, 208 
Crown fires, 208 
Groimd fires, 208 
Smface fires, 208 
Control, 208 

Crown fires, 209 
Ground fires, 208 
Surface fires, 209 
Equipment, 207 
Fighting the fiames, 210 
Immediate action, 207 
Patrol, 206 

Patrolling the back line, 210 
Preliminary inspection. 207 



412 



INDEX 



Fire fighting, 

Procedure following prelimi- 
nary inspection", 208 

Tool caches, 207 

Trespass, 205 
Fish, preparation of, 217 
Fistula, 255 
Flat ends, 337* 
Flooring, matched, 97 

Unmatched, 97 
Foot and mouth disease, cattle, 
260, 

Sheep, 264 
Foot rot, 264 
Footwear, 3 

Forest fires, six rules for preven- 
tion of, 321 
Forest service compass, 200 
Forest Supervisors' headquarters, 

341 
Formula for whitewash, Govern- 
ment, 369 
Foul feet, 260 
Founder, 242 
Fractiu-es, 304 
Freezing, 305 

Fruits, preparation of, 221 
Fuel woods, 320 



Gates, fence, 117* 
GaUs, harness and saddle, 255 
Gangrene, 247 

General comparison of rattle- 
snakes, copperheads and 
moccasins, 317 
Color, 318 
Habits, 318 
Size, 317 
Gila monster, 315 
Ginger snaps, 223 
Glanders-Farcy, 243 
Glossary, 379 

Government formula for white- 
wash, 369 
Grades, per cent measurement of, 
351 
To ascertain without a grad- 
ometer, 354, 355* 



Grindstone, 127* 
Ground fires, 208 
Gunshot wounds, 303 



Hackamore, 13* 
Halters, 24* 

Leather, 24 

Rope, 25 

Tie rope, 25 
Handkerchiefs, 7, 10 
Harness and saddle galls, 

255 
Hat, 1, 10 
Hatchet, marking, 172 

Shingling, 172*, 173 
Headache, 300 
Heel plates, 4 
Hitches, 331* 

Anchor, 333 

Blackwall, 334 

Bowline sling, 332 

Cat's paw, 333 

Clove, 332 

Clove and a half, 332 

Cross, 152*, 153 

Diamond, 149* 

Grain, 148* 

Half, 152*, 331 

Mooring, 333 

Overhand sling, 332 

Rolling, 333 

Round turn and two half 
hitches, 333 

Squaw, 151*, 152 

Telephone, 333 

Timber, 332 

Timber and a half, 332 

Two half, 333 
Hobbles, 25* 

Chain, 239 

Cross, 239* 

Double, 238 

Horseshoe, 239 

Picket, 238 

Side, 238 
Hobbling, 238 
Hob-nails, 4 
Hoes, 61* 
Hogs, diseases of, 265 



INDEX 



413 



Hogs, diseases of, 
Cholera, 265 
Mange, 265 
Thumps, 266 
Hominy, 215 
Horses, age of, 272, 273* 
Bad habits of, 269 

Balking, 270 

Bitmg, 269 

Boltmg, 271 

Cribbing, 270 

Kickmg, 269 

Rearing in harness, 271 

Setting back, 270 

Stall kicking, 269 

Stall pawing, 270 

Striking, 269 
Bones of, 279* 
Care of, 227 

Bariey, 229 

Bran, 229 

Ear com, 227 

Feed, 227 

Fodders, 230 

Gram, 227 

Green corn, 227 

Hay, 230 

Oats, 229 

Range grasses, 230 

Roughage, 229 

Salt, 231 

Shelled corn, 228 

Tame grasses, 230 

Water, 227 

Wheat, 229 
Diseases of, 240 

Abscesses, 254 

Blind staggers, 248 

Bots, 245 

Bruises, 253 

Bums, 252 

CoUc, spasmodic, 241 
Wind, 240 

Cuts, 252 

Distemper, 242 

Fistula, 255 

Foimder, 242 

Gangrene, 247 

Glanders-Farcy, 243 

Harness and saddle galls, 
255 



Horses, diseases of, 

Horsepox, 247 

Injuries and other ailments, 
249 . 

Internal poisoning, 250 

Lameness, 249 

Loco poisoning, 251 

Pink eye, 246 

Poison wounds, 251 

Poll evil, 256 

Proud flesh, 253 

Punctiu-es, 254 

Quittor, 256 

Rabies, 247 

Scratches, 256 

Sitfasts, 255 

Sweeney, 256 
Hobbling, 238 

Chaming, 239 

Cross hobbles, 239* 

Double hobbles, 238 

Horseshoe hobbles, 239 

Picket hobbles, 238 

Side hobbles, 238 
Hoof, the, 232, 236* 

Bars, 233 

Coronet, 234 

Frog, 232 

Heel, 233 

Parts of, 232 

Sole, 232 

Toe, 233 

WaUs, 233 
Jaw of, 273* 
Legs of, 278* 
Parts of, 240* 
Purchasing a saddle horse, 272 

Age, 272, 273* 

Build, 276 

Color, 276 

Eyes, 277 

Gaits, 279 

General disposition, 276 

Hearing, 278 

Hoofs, 278 

Legs, 278 

Pulse, 277 

Respiration, 278 

Size, 276 
Shoeing, 231 

Attaching the shoe, 236 



414 



INDEX 



Horses, shoeing, 

Finishing, 237 

Fitting the shoe. 236 

Holding the feet, 234 

Kit, 231 

Leveling the hoof, 235 

Removal of shoes, 234 
Subjugation of, 267 

Head-and-tailing, 269 

Throwing, 267 

Whirling, 269 
Horsepox, 247 
Hose supporters, 6 
Hot treatments, 297 
Housewife, 10 



I 

Identification of stock, 279 
Methods used, 280 
Brands, 280 

Fire brands, 280 
Bar irons, 281 
Cancelation of, 282 
Barring out, 284* 
Venting, 284* 
Location of, 282 
Rimning irons, 282 
Stamp irons, 280 
Inscribed brands, 284 
Paint brands. 285, 286* 
Changing brands, 288 
Running, 290* 
Sleepering, 290 
Characters used, 285 

Arbitrary symbols, 287*, 

288 
Combinations, 288, 289* 
Conventional letters and 

flgm-es, 286* 
Other conventional char- 
acters, 287* 
Reading brands, 288 
Dewlaps, 283*, 294 
Ear buttons, 294* 
Loops, 294* 
Marks, 291, 293* 
Classifications, 291 
Reading, 291 
Tags, 294* 
Ingrowing toe-nails, 302 



Injuries, to animals, 249 
To the human body, 302 

Bruises, 303 

Bums, 303 

Catfish woimds, 307 

Cuts, 302 

Dislocations, 304 

Dog bites, 307 

Drowning, 305 

Faint, 304 

Fractures, 304 

Freezing, 305 

Gunshot wounds, 303 

Lightning stroke, 306 

Poisoning, 309 

Shock, 305 

Snake bites, 307 

Sprains, 304 

Simstroke, 305 

Tarantula, centiped, and 
scorpion woimds, 307 
Inscribed brands, 284 
Irons, bar, 281 
Branding, 280 
Running, 282 
Stamp, 280 



Jams, 222 
Jellies, 222 
Johnny cake, 214 



Knots, 325, 327* 
Bowline, 328 
Bowline on a bight, 328 
Carrick bend, 329 
Combined surgical and reef, 326 
Double overhand, 329 
Double sheet bend, 328 
Figvire 8, 328 
Granny, 328 
Overhand, 326 

Overhand and half hitch, 329 
Rimning bowline, 328 
Sheepshank, 329 
Single sheet bend, 328 
Square or reef, 326 
Staffordshire or Tait's, 326 
Surgical, 326 



INDEX 



415 



Knots, 
Thief, 328 
Turk's head, 329 



Lameness, 249 

Lampas, 249 

Land descriptions, 194 

Lands acquired iinder the Weeks 

law, 346 
Land surveys, 192 

Base lines, 192 

Comers, 196, 198* 

Guide meridians, 193 

Half sections, 194* 

Land descriptions, 194 

Metes and bounds surveys, 197 

Other descriptions, 196, 197* 

Principal meridians, 192 

Quarter sections, 195* 

Quarter-quarter sections, 195 

Quarter - quarter - quarter sec- 
tions, 195* 

Quarter - quarter - quarter - 
quarter sections; 195* 

Range lines, 193 

Sections, 194 

Section lines, 193 
Numbers, 193 
Subdivisions, 193 

Standard parallels, 192 

Township Unes, 193 
Lash hook, 23* 
Lash rope and cinch, 23 
Latigo ties, clove, 334* 

Double half liitch, 334 

Overhand, 334 
Lemonade, preparation of, 224 
Level-plumb, 125* 
Lightning stroke, 306 
Live stock, identification of, 279 

Brands, 280 

Dewlaps, 283*, 294 

Ear buttons, 294* 
Loops, 294* 
Marks, 291, 293* 
Tags, 294* 
Location of camp sites, 319 
Log riUes, 369 

Comparison of, 377 



Log rules, 

Doyle, 370 

Doyle-Scribner, 373 

Scribner, 373 

Scribner Decimal C, 374 

Two-thirds, 370 
Logs, bucking, 186*. 187* 

Scaling, 188*, 190*, 191* 
IjOss of cud, 258 
Limip jaw, 259 
Lung worms, 264 

M 
INIalaria, 298 

Malaria mosquito, 298 

Transmission of malaria, 299 
Mange, cattle, 259 

Hog, 265 

Sheep, 263 
Mattock, 60* 
Measures, 347 
• Apothecaries' or wine, 348 

Cubic, 348 

Dry, 348 

Grain, hay, seed, and vege- 
tables, 349 

Liquid, 348 

Long, 347 

Spoon and cup, 349 

Square, 348 

Surveyors', 347 
Meats, boiled, 217 

Broiled, 217 

Domestic, 216 

Fried, 216 

Game, 215 

Roasted, 217 
Milk fever, 261 
JMoccaslns (footwear), 6 

(Reptiles), 316 
jSIorrals, 26* 
IMountain boomer, 315 
INIules, shoeing, 237 
IMush, 214 

N 
Nails, number per pound, 359, 

360* 
Nooses, halter, 330* 
Hangman's, 330 
SUp, 331 



416 



INDEX 



Oatmeal, preparation of, 214 

Oil stone, 127* 

Onions, preparation of, 220 



Packing, 147 

Attachment of ropes to saddle, 

148* 
Hitches used, 148 
Cross, 152*, 153 
Diamond, 149*, 150*. 151* 
Grain, 148* 
Half, 152* 
Squaw, 151*, 152 
Packing equipment, 20 
Pack saddle, 20 

Combination, 20, 21* 
Cross-tree, 20 
Fork of, 21* 
Tree of, 21* 
Full rigged, 23* 
Muley, 20 
Fork of, 20* 
Pack saddle parts, 21 
Breast collar, 21, 22* 
Breeching, 21, 22* 
Cinches, 22* 
Latigoes, 22 
Rig, 22 
Paint brands, 285 
Painting, 105 

Amount of paint required, 107 
Care of paint brushes, 107 
Coats, 106 
Colors, 106 
Composition, 105 
Object, 105 
Panniers, 23 
Peavy, 180* 

Per cent, relation of to degrees, 
354 
Of grades, 351* 
Pick, 60* 

Picket pin and rope, 26* 
Pickles, preparation of, 222 
Pie crust, preparation of, 223 
Pies, preparation of, 223 
Pills or balls, 266 
Pinch bar, 62* 



Pink eye, 246 
Planes, 124* 
Poisoning, loco, 251 

Internal, in animals, 250 
In the human body, 309 
Poisonous plants, 314 
Poisonous snakes, 316 

Common characteristics, 316 

Emission of poison, 317 

Fangs, 316 

General comparison of, 317 
Color, 318 
Habits, 318 
Size, 317 

Poison glands, 317 

Poison, the, 317 
Poisons, 310 

Antidotes, 309 

Blands, 309 

Emetics, 309 

Stimvilants, 310 
Poison wounds, 251 
Posts, 

Comer, 115 

Setting and bracing, 115 

Line, 116 

Setting or driving, 116 
Potatoes, preparation of, 219 
Pot rack, 218* 
Protection of the public health, 

322 
Proud flesh, 253 
Provisions, 30 

For stations, 30 

For temporary camps, 30 
Pudding, preparation of, 223 
Pimctures, 254 



Quirt, 18* 
Quittor, 256 



Rabies, 247 

Rattlesnakes, 316 

Rearing rig, 271* 

Reptiles, 315 

Gila monster, 315 
Homed toad, 315 
Mountain boomer, 315 

Rice, preparation of, 221 



INDEX 



417 



Riding, 139 

Adjusting the blanket, 139 

Cheeking, 142 

"Climbing on," 143 

Dismounting, 145 

Mounting, 141 

Placing the saddle, 139 

Position, 143 

Reining, 145 

Reins, 145 

Removing the saddle, 141 

Saddling, 139 

Tightening the cinch, 140 

Vatating, 142 
Riding equipment, 10 

Bit, 12* 

Bridle, 10, 11* 

Chaparejos, 18, 19* 

Hackamore, 13* 

Quirt, 18* 

Saddle, 14* 

Saddle blanket, 13 

Spurs, 17, 18* 
Rock drilling, 72 

Chum drilMng, 74 

Double jacking, 72 

Removing the cuttings, 74 

Single jacking, 72 



Saddle, miUtary, 14* 

Pack, 20, 21* 
Fork of, 21* 
Full rigged, 23* 
Parts of, 22* 

Stock, 14* 
Saddle blanket, 13 

Cinch buckle, 17* 

Cinches, 15* 

Horns, 16* 

Seat plate, 16* 

Stirrups, 15* 

Tapaderas, 16* 

Tree, 14* 
Saddle galls, 255 
Saddle horse, purchasing a, 272 

Shoemg, 238 
Sag tables, 355 

Sand^viches, preparation of, 221 
Sawing, 178 



Bawingi 

FiUng, 178 
Saws, hand, 119 

Buck, 177* 

Crosscut, 119 

Keyhole, 121* 

Rip, 121 

Setting, 179 

Teeth, 120 
Saws, two-man, 176*, 177 
Scabies, 263 
Scales, log, 369 
Scorpion, 306* 
Scorpion wounds, 307 
Scratches, 256 
Screws, 363*-368^ 
Screw worms, 262 
Shakes, 95 
Shears, 137, 138* 
Sheep, diseases of, 263 

Foot and mouth disease, 264 

Foot rot, 264 

Lung worms, 264 

Mange, 263 

Stomach worms, 264 
Sheep, holding, 265 
Shingles, 93 
Shingling, 93 
Shirt, 3, 9 
Shock, 305 
Shoe calks, 4 
Shoeing horses, 231 

Mules, 237 

Saddle animals, 238 
Shoeing kit, 231* 

Rig, 235* 
Shoes, 10, 237* 
Shoe strings, 4, 10 
Shovels, 61* 
Sitfasts, 255 
Sleepering, 290 
Shcker, 3 
Snake bites, 307 
Snakehohng, SO 
Socks, 6, 10 
Sore lips, 301 

Limgs, 301 

Throat, 301 
SpUces, 335*, 336*, 337* 

Clove and overhand, 336 

Double eye, 336 



418 



INDEX 



Splices, 

Eye, 336 

Hawser bend, 335 

Leather, 336 

Permanent, 335 

Temporary, 335 

Toggle, 336 
SpUtting, 176 
Sprains, 304 
Spurs, 17, 18* 
Square, carpenter's, 127 
Stimulants, 310 
Stomach worms, 264 
Storm rubbers, 6 
Simstroke, 305 
Surface fires, 208 
Surveying crews and their work, 

198 
Siu-veys, land, 192 
Sweeney, 256 



Tarantula, 306* 
Wounds, 307 
Tar brands, 285 
Tarpaulins, 7 
Tea, preparation of, 223 
Telephones, 49 
Installation of, 49 

Connections at protector, 50 
Connection of batteries, 51* 
Connection of fuse with set, 

49 
Connections in the set, 50 
Dead ending the line wire, 49 
Drip loops, 50 
Groimd rods, 50 
Joints and splices, 50 
To test dry batteries, 51 
Tubes, 50 
Ohms resistance of ringer coils, 

49 
Protection, 49 
Troubles, 51 
Telephone lines, 31 

Approaches and crossings, 46 
Climbers, 41* 
CUmbing, 41 
Connections, 47*, 50* 
Costs, 31 



Telephone lines, 

Damage to telephone lines, 52 
Dead ends, 45*, 46* 
Equipment, 32 
General, 31 
Laying wire, 40 
Lightning rods, 47 
Location, 32 
Other lines, 48 
Poles, 33 

Attaching brackets and in- 
sulators, 36* 
Dimensions, 34 
Holes, 36 
Material, 33 

Methods of strengthening, 38 
Braces, 38, 39* 
Guys, 38, 39* 
Re-enforcements, 38 
Stubs, 39*, 40* 
Uses of guys and braces, 3S 
Pole steps, 42 
Poles in place, 35 
Preparation, 34 
Preservative treatment c 

358 
Pull, 37* 
Rake, 37* 
Roof, 34* 
Setting, 37 
Spaces, 36 
Tamping, 37 

Use of different lengths, 35 
UtiUzation, 36 
Preliminary survey, 31 
Right-of-way clearance, 33 
Sag, 43 
SpUces, 44* 
Hook, 45 

In galvanized iron wire, 44 
In hard drawn copper wire, 
45 
Ties, 42*, 43*, 44* 
Figure 8, 43 
Horseshoe, 43 
Swinging, 43 
Tree lines, 48 
Transportation, 32 
Throwing cattle, 262* 

Horses, 267 
Thumps, 266 



INDEX 



419 



Tie rope, 25* 
Timber cruising, 182* 
Estimating, 130 
FeUing, 183, 184*, 185*. 186* 
Toothache, 301 
Trail construction, 52 
Bed, 65 
Blazes. 71 

Bridges and culverts, 66 
Capping, 71 
Clearing, 55 
Cordiu-oy, 69* 
Cross-section of trail, 65* 
Disposal of debris, 55 
Drain ditches, 70 
Grade, 54 
Grading, 55 
Blasting, 55 
Care of tools, 64 
Tools required, 55 

Axes, 62, 170*, 171*. 172* 
Brush fork, 63* 
Bush hook, 62* 
Combined pick and mat- 
tock, 59, 60* 
Graders, 59 

Grubbing hoes, 60, 61* 
Mattock, 59, 60* 
Pick, 59, 60* 
Pinch bar, 62* 
Plow, 56 
Rake, 62 
Shovels, 61* 
Use of picks, mattocks, etc., 
63 
Locating the route, 54 
Preliminary survey, 53 
Purpose, 53 
Retaining walls, 65 
Switchbacks, 66 
Tread, 70 
Traverse table, 204, 357 
Troubles, telephone, 51 
Trousers, 3, 9 
TubercTilosis (cattle), 260 
Turk's head, 329* 



Underwear, 3, 9 

Utensils, cooking, care of, 224 



Variation, 203* 

Vegetables, preparation of, 219 

Venting, 284* 

W 

Wagons, 153 
Bed, 163, 164* 
Bolster plates, 160* 
Brake, 159, 162* 
Lever, 161* 
Use of, 167 
Care of, 164 
Dish, 155 
Evener, 162, 164* 
Evener end showing bushing, 

163* 
Front bolster, 159, 160* 
Gather, 155 
Gears, 158 
. Front, steel axle, 157* 

Wood axle, 158* 
Log, 165* 
Rear, with mountain brake. 

161* 
Greasing the bolster plate, 166 
Hoxmd"?, 158 
Neck yoke, 162, 163* 
Oiling or greasing, 164 
Pitch, 155 
Reach plate, 159* 
Rear bolster. 159 
Removal and replacement of 

taps, 165 
Removal and replacement of 

wheels, 166 
Rocking bolster, 160* 
Rub iron, 164* 
Single trees, 163, 164* 
Size, 153 
Skems, 153*, 156*, 157 

Attachment of to axle, 156* 
Standards, 160* 
Tires, 167 
Tongue, 161, 162* 
Track, 155 
Type, 153 
Wheels, 154 
Warbles, 262 
Water moccasins, 316 



420 



INDEX 



Wedges, 179, 180* 

Weeks law, lands acquired under, 

346 
Weights, 346 

Apothecaries', 347 

Avoirdupois, 346 

Miscellaneous, 352 

Troy, 347 
Whitewash, Govemmeht formula 
for, 369 



Woods work, 170 
Work shoes, 3, 10 
Wounds, catfish, 307 

Ccntiped, 307 
Wounds, poison, 251 

Tarantula, 307 



Yeast, 212 
Yeast bread, 212 



